533 lines
29 KiB
Plaintext
533 lines
29 KiB
Plaintext
ÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜ ÜÜÜ ÜÜÜÜ
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ÜÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛßÛßßßßßÛÛÜ ÜÜßßßßÜÜÜÜ ÜÛÜ ÜÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÜÜÜÜÜÛßß ßÛÛ
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ßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÜ ßÛÛ ÜÛÛÛÜÛÛÜÜÜ ßÛÛÛÛÜ ßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÜÛÛÜÜÜÛÛÝ Ûß
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ßßßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÜ ÞÝ ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛßßÛÜÞÛÛÛ ÛÛÛÛÛÜ ßßÛÛÛÞß
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Mo.iMP ÜÛÛÜ ßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝÛ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ÞÛÛÛÛ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÝ ßÛß
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ÜÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÛÛÛ ÛÛÛÛÛÛ
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ÜÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ß ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÜ ÜÛ
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ÜÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÞÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛß
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ÜÛßÛÛÛÛÛÛ ÜÜ ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÛÛÞÛÛÛÛÛÝ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛßß
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ÜÛßÛÛÛÛÛÛÜÛÛÛÛÜÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ÞÛ ßÛÛÛÛÛ Ü ÛÝÛÛÛÛÛ Ü
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ÜÛ ÞÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛß ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ ßÛÜ ßÛÛÛÜÜ ÜÜÛÛÛß ÞÛ ÞÛÛÛÝ ÜÜÛÛ
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ÛÛ ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛß ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÜ ßÛÜ ßßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛß ÜÜÜß ÛÛÛÛÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÛÛÛÛÛß
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ßÛÜ ÜÛÛÛß ßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÜ ßßÜÜ ßßÜÛÛßß ßÛÛÜ ßßßÛßÛÛÛÛÛÛÛßß
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ßßßßß ßßÛÛß ßßßßß ßßßßßßßßßßßßß
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ARRoGANT CoURiERS WiTH ESSaYS
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Grade Level: Type of Work Subject/Topic is on:
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[ ]6-8 [ ]Class Notes [Virtual Reality. ]
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[ ]9-10 [ ]Cliff Notes [ ]
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[ ]11-12 [x]Essay/Report [ ]
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[x]College [ ]Misc [ ]
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Dizzed: 07/94 # of Words:4030 School:DeVry State:NY
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ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ>ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ>ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ>Chop Here>ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ>ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ>ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ>ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ
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A Report
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on
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VIRTUAL REALITY TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
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Prepared for
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Social Issues in Technology
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DeVry, Phoenix
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by
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Joe Rykowski
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Kip Yeackley
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July 24, 1994 TABLE OF CONTENTS
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ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii
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INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
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WHAT IS VIRTUAL REALITY? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
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Definitions and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
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Inspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
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THE TECHNOLOGY BEHIND VIRTUAL REALITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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Video Display Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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Audio Output Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
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Tactile Response Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
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Interactive Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
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Computers and Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
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THE HISTORY OF VIRTUAL REALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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Virtual Reality in the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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Virtual Reality in the Present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
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Virtual Reality in the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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THE SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL REALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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New Rules of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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Adverse Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
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CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
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ABSTRACT
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This paper addresses entertainment's use of technology, specifically
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the medium of virtual reality. The focus is to define virtual reality,
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examine it's components, survey the field, and consider it's impact upon
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society. Among the definitions included are those from the artist Myron
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Krueger, the scholar Howard Rheingold, and the novelist William Gibson.
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The technological components used in virtual reality systems include
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the following: video display, audio input, tactile response, interactive
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input, and the computer hardware and software. Although a complete
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compilation of all the devices involved in this arena are beyond the scope
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of the paper, a discussion of the general areas of equipment, along with
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several examples of items and companies involved in the field will be
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given.
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Our survey of the virtual reality field will encompass views of past,
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present and future forms of this medium and based upon the opinions of
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those using it. By looking at where VR got it's start we shall attempt to
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understand it's basic attraction. In examining VR in the present we will
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consider the current state of the art and it's usefulness. Finally, by
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contemplating the future of VR, we'll be probing the possible benefits that
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this technology may hold to society.
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In order for this new form of high technology to enter into the
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mainstream of common society, it is important to address the social
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implications involved. We will be addressing two common issues associated
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with any new technology: new rules of behavior and adverse effects. By
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showing two of the social implications of this technology, we will be
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addressing some of the issues that must be confronted if this technology is
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to be successfully incorporated into our society.
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INTRODUCTION
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In this paper, we will address the ways in which entertainment
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utilizes technology to explore beyond the boundaries of reality. In
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particular, the medium of virtual reality, "an artificial world that
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'feels' real, that responds to your every move much as the real world does
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(Lavroff 1992, 7)," is examined. To achieve this end we will be looking at
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the definitions of virtual reality, the technology behind virtual reality,
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a survey of virtual reality, including it's history, present state, and
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future forms, and finally the impact of virtual reality on our society.
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WHAT IS VIRTUAL REALITY?
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Definitions and Terms
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There are many varying definitions and terms for virtual reality (VR),
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all of which could be considered accurate within certain circles of
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knowledge. Since the technology behind VR is still basically a new field,
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there are a lot of researchers, authors, and columnists spewing out their
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own theories behind VR. Naturally, everyone offers a new and "better"
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definition--from Myron Krueger's terminology which appeals more toward the
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lay person up to the much more accurate and technical definition by Howard
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Rheingold. Krueger defines VR as an "artificial reality." His research
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has an artistic and psychological slant and is thus reflected in the
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following definition:
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"An artificial reality perceives a participant's action in terms of
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the body's relationship to a graphic world and generates responses
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that maintain the illusion that his actions are taking place within
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that world" (Krueger 1991, 59).
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In Krueger's artificial reality, art and science become interrelated, and
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the viewer interacts with and actually becomes part of the new simulated
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environment.
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On the other hand Rheingold dove more into what actually makes up
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virtual reality. He states:
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"that the idea of immersion (using stereoscopy, gaze-tracking, and
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other technologies to create the illusion of being inside a computer
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generated scene) is one of the two foundations of virtual reality
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technology. The idea of navigation (creating a computer model of a
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molecule or a city and enabling the user to move around, as if inside
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it) is the other fundamental element" (Rheingold 1991, 202).
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It is important to remember that these definitions are only two
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authors view points. Artificial Reality is probably the most dated of any
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definition (it was coined back in the mid- 1970s.) Since that time,
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specific projects have been started and further terms have been thrown
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around--virtual worlds, virtual cockpits, virtual environments, and virtual
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workstations. Finally, in 1989, Jaron Lanier, CEO of VPL Research Inc.,
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coined the term virtual reality to encompass all of the virtual projects
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under a single phrase. This term refers (in general) to any three-
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dimensional reality implemented with stereo viewing goggles and "data"
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gloves.
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Inspiration
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On another level, outside of actual research and development
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atmospheres, a third term was coined by William Gibson, a popular cyberpunk
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science-fiction writer of the '80s (Churbuck 1990, 154). He used the term
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cyberspace in his book Neuromancer in 1984 to refer to a single virtual
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reality that could be experienced simultaneously by people worldwide:
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"Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions
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of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught
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mathematical concepts...A graphic representation of data abstracted
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from the banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable
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complexity. Lines of light ranged in the non-space of the mind,
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clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding..."
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(Gibson 1984, 87).
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THE TECHNOLOGY BEHIND VIRTUAL REALITY
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Virtual reality is made possible primarily through technologies which
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address the need to interface a person's natural senses with the computer's
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representation of reality. Video display devices are used to provide input
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to the visual senses. Audio output devices are utilized to engage the
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audial senses. The sense of touch is provided through the use tactile
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response devices. In order to interact with a virtual environment it is
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then necessary to combine these devices along with interactive input
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devices to synthesize the perceptual stimuli into a cohesive representation
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of reality. This task is performed by the computer and it's software.
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Video Display Devices
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Visual perception in Human beings results from combining the
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information gathered by the eye with the visual cues that are interpreted
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by the brain (Gleitman 1986, 179). By providing the visual senses with the
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same type of information containing the desired visual cues, it becomes
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possible to generate a virtual image that looks real. This is the
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technique that is employed with today's video display devices which include
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video monitors and LCD goggles.
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Currently, today's computers, including those not used in virtual
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reality, use video monitors to convey visual information to their users.
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These monitors are technologically no different from the television and
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rely upon the same basic components of a cathode ray tube and the
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associated electronic circuitry to display an image. The only difference
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is that a video monitor does not contain a television tuner and instead
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receives it's input from a computer that is connected to it.
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The type of video output device that is used primarily for virtual
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reality are liquid crystal display goggles, referred to as LCD goggles.
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These resemble regular optic glasses, but do not use clear glass or plastic
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lenses and were pioneered by Ivan Sutherland. Instead, these devices are
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made with lenses that contain the same liquid crystal displays that are
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used in common calculators. These devices made by companies like 3DTV
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Corp. in San Rafael, CA, are available for $2,000 to $3,500. Images made
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using these devices can be very convincing "utilizing lighting, and
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coloration characteristics, to best maximize the 3D effectiveness of the
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production (Ostman 1992, 13).
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Audio Output Devices
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The audio world also exists in three dimensions. "The inclusion of
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sound to a virtual reality system adds an extra dimension of reality to the
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environment" (Lavroff 1992, 28). An example of the sophisticated devices
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available has been developed by Crystal River Engineering, Inc. in
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Groveland, CA. Their headphone system called the Convolvotron uses 128+
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processors to re-create a true three-dimensional aural environment. This
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feat is accomplished by omnidirectionally recording music or sounds for
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replay through the headphone system, thereby accurately reproducing the
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necessary perceptual cues.
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Tactile Response Devices
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One of the newer technologies to be developed for virtual reality has
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been that of tactile response devices. These are systems which allow
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information about a virtual environment to be presented through the
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participant's sense of touch. Tactile response falls into two general
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categories, tactile feedback and force feedback. Tactile feedback is
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handled using tactile stimulating devices called tactors. Tactors are
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small pieces of metal built into the fingers of special gloves and have the
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capability to change their shape when a current is applied to them. By
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using tactors, it is possible to simulate the feeling of touching an object
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with your fingers even though no physical object exists. Xtensory, Inc. in
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Scotts Valley, CA manufactures gloves of this type.
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Force feedback devices have been created which are made up of a glove
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with an exoskeleton. These devices change the amount of resistance applied
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to the movement of the hand inside and thus can simulate the presence of a
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solid or semi-solid object present in the hand. This technology is
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relatively new and to date has not resulted in any commercially available
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products.
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Interactive Input Devices
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Once a virtual environment is presented by the computer to the user,
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they will undoubtedly wish to interact with it. In order to do this there
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must also be a way for the user to send information to the computer.
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Methods being used to this end range from the normal computer keyboard to
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voice recognition.
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The computer keyboard has been around for years and functions the same
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way when being used to interact with a virtual environment. Devices such
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as computer joysticks, trackballs, and hand gestures are now replacing the
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keyboard because of the simplified way in which they are operated.
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An interesting development for use in the three-dimensional world of
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virtual reality was the three axes trackball. This device is similar to
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conventional trackballs containing a billiard- sized ball which can be
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rotated along the x and y axes, but adds the ability to be moved along the
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z axis.
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Perhaps the most promising form of interactive input will be the
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evolution of speech recognition systems. Limited success has been
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accomplished in this area and continues to be pursued by many companies in
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hopes of making access to virtual reality as easy as speaking to another
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person. Devices such as these would consist primarily of a microphone that
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could easily be incorporated into the headset containing the visual and
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aural feedback devices. Another advantage to using speech recognition is
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that it would allow the more awkward keyboards or joysticks to be
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eliminated altogether, thus allowing a greater degree of freedom of
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movement.
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Computers and Software
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Last, but not least, all of these different input and output systems
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must be smoothly integrated. This is the job of the computer workstation.
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Computer workstations used in the virtual reality field today have been
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specifically designed to meet the enormous task of coordinating,
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manipulating, and representing the various components mentioned before.
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Computer application programs written to allow the presentation of graphic,
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audio, and perceptual information allow the "user" to enter the virtual
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world. The computer and it's programs must then handle the input from the
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user in order to realistically simulate their interaction with that
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artificial reality.
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The computer hardware and software capable of implementing virtual
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reality range from home computer systems costing around $5,000 to the
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high-end Silicon Graphics, Inc. workstations costing over $100,000
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(Newquist 1992, 95). Although the price of the computer hardware and
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software has been one of the major factors prohibiting wide spread
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availability of virtual reality technology, recent breakthroughs are
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beginning to promise dramatically lower prices in the near future.
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THE HISTORY OF VIRTUAL REALITY
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Virtual Reality in the Past
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Who first started developing virtual realities, and why? The answer
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to that question takes us outside of computer technology. Computer
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technologists were not the first people to think of providing realistic
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artificial experiences. In the mid-1950s, the movie industry went through
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a period of experimentation that introduced Cinerama and Cinemascope. In
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1956, Morton Heilig invented an arcade-style attraction called Sensorama,
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which still exists today (in Heilig's backyard, under an old ragged tarp.)
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You sit on a seat, grasp motorcycle handlebars, and hold your head up to
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two stereo-mounted lenses. The seat and handlebars vibrate as you look at
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a three-dimensional movie taken at eye level in Manhattan traffic. Wind
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blows in your face at a velocity corresponding to your movement in the
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scene. As you travel, the smell of exhaust fumes and the aroma of pizza
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are present at appropriate moments. The idea behind Sensorama was to make
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the ultimate film experience, but because it was never intended for
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interaction, it is not true virtual reality as we define it today.
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However, because Heilig's idea was to immerse the viewer in a completely
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synthetic experience it is widely accepted that this was the first
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commercial attempt to use virtual reality (Welter 1990, 66). If this had
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been a success, today we would probably have had arcade games that
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surpassed anything imaginable.
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In the field of computers, the first research was started in 1966 by
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Tom Furness at Wright Patterson Air Force Base (Horn 1991, 57). He was
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experimenting with an alternative for displaying information to a pilot
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during combat situations. Furness continued development of the heads-up
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type of display that allowed pilots to see graphic instruments on the
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inside of their helmet visors. "Traditional" cockpit displays are mounted
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below eye level, so the pilot must constantly glance down at the
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instrumentation. During combat this is unacceptable.
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It occurred to Furness that he could display computer graphic
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representations of information outside the cockpit using the same type of
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technology. In effect the first work on high-tech flight simulators was
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begun. Furness depicted the three-dimensional graphic space through which
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the pilot was flying. This display rendered graphic objects of enemy
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missiles and enemy airspace. Pilots could look around in this space by
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turning their heads. They found this system effective because the
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visualization of the three-dimensional combat environment, previously
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gained only through long experience, was now portrayed in a concrete way
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that they could grasp very quickly (Krueger 1991, 120).
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Much of this work was classified until 1983, and even then it was
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unknown to the world for the most part. This technology was limited to the
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cockpit environment and was far too expensive for general application.
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In 1969, at the University of Utah, Ivan Sutherland, the father of
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computer graphics, implemented a head-mounted display that generated two
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stereoscopic images of a three- dimensional scene (Fisher, Tazelaar 1990,
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219). These images were displayed on two tiny monitors, one for each eye.
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These monitors were mounted on an apparatus suspended from the ceiling and
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strapped to the viewer's head.
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As the viewer turned his head, he could look around a
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three-dimensional graphic room. The movements of his head were detected by
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the apparatus and were relayed to a computer, which generated an
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appropriate view--the view that the person would see if he were in the
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room, looking in that direction.
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Virtual Reality in the Present
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At the present time, mentioning VR will bring the movie Lawnmower Man
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to mind. While the experiences portrayed in this movie are a far cry from
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current VR technology, the movie does make a very good point: The most
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exciting work being done in VR is entertainment related. Instead of simply
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watching television or guiding a tiny animated figure through a computer
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game, you can become part of the action--fighting opponents as a giant
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mechanized robot, crashing a car in demolition derby, exploring in a world
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of checkerboards and pterodactyls, and much more.
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A new VR entertainment product is just appearing on the market.
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Developed by Cyberstudio and marketed by Spectrum Holobtye, Virtuality
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offers VR game simulations that are among the most realistic. These units
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include headgear and related devices to give you a 3-D VR effect. Battle
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Sphere, Legend Quest, Total Destruction, HERO, Dactyl Nightmare and EXOREX
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are among the currently available "simulations." They are becoming more
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and more common at entertainment centers around the country.
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This is just one new technology that is incorporating VR. Although,
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Virtuality has a more "arcade" type of appeal, there are other
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entertainment related applications of VR that are currently available or,
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at least, that are on the drawing board.
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Chicago's Battletech Center is more along the lines of a theme park
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and is a complete entertainment complex devoted to space warfare (Rheingold
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1991, 373). For $7 you can have an experience of a lifetime. You learn
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how to operate a giant mechanized robot called a Battlemech, which involves
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responding to terrain changes, adjusting for heat dissipation, and laying
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out battle strategy. What gives realism and challenge to the Battlemech
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experience is the fact that you play against living opponents rather than
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the algorithms of a computer program.
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Battlemech and Virtuality appear to be only precursors of a flood of
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||
VR options. VR theme rides and parks are being planned by Disney and
|
||
Universal Studios, and similar attractions may soon appear in Japan.
|
||
|
||
Again, remember that VR is still a very young field. The level of
|
||
sophistication of the systems involved is high, but progress is still being
|
||
made in the quality of the visual images-- higher resolution, more colors,
|
||
faster display rates. As soon as the technology arrives, each of us will
|
||
be like explorers. As Jaron Lanier once said, "Sometimes I think we've
|
||
uncovered a new planet, but one that we are inventing instead of
|
||
discovering. ...virtual reality is an adventure worth centuries" (Menzel
|
||
1990, 116).
|
||
|
||
|
||
Virtual Reality in the Future
|
||
|
||
|
||
"Responsive technology will move ever closer to us, becoming the
|
||
standard interface through which we gain most of our experience" (Krueger
|
||
1983, 187). People from different countries could convene for a conference
|
||
without actually physically going any place. Shut-ins, the handicapped,
|
||
and the elderly could do things that most people take for granted--taking a
|
||
stroll through the park or a shopping trip at the mall. Our everyday
|
||
experiences could include exploring the far side of the moon, learning what
|
||
life as a dinosaur could have been like, or basking in the sun on the
|
||
"shores" of mars. Virtual reality offers a higher dimension of exploration
|
||
to both leisure and learning experiences.
|
||
|
||
|
||
THE SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF VIRTUAL REALITY
|
||
|
||
|
||
Consider the following statement: "It is likely that artificial
|
||
reality will be the key metaphor of the immediate future-not just in
|
||
computer technology, but in intellectual discourse as well" (Krueger 1992,
|
||
262). Often, when a new trend is introduced into the social order, society
|
||
integrates it over time at a relatively slow pace. The automobile,
|
||
telephone, and television, are all examples of new technologies that came
|
||
into being, but were slow to be accepted. The same can not be said of the
|
||
newer technologies of integrated circuits and it's offspring the computer.
|
||
With the discovery of integrated circuits and the vast number of uses for
|
||
them, society had little choice but to integrate them as quickly as
|
||
possible. The benefits were simply too large to ignore, the needs of our
|
||
new ways of life too great.
|
||
|
||
|
||
New Rules of Behavior
|
||
|
||
|
||
The problem with these new computer based areas of high-technology is
|
||
that the technology itself is evolving so rapidly that society is not
|
||
afforded as much time to assimilate as before. Instead new forms of
|
||
technology are thrust into the everyday lives of people and it becomes
|
||
almost an afterthought that they must interact with it. Society must
|
||
therefore learn to adapt faster than ever to an increasingly complex and
|
||
technologically oriented way of life. New forms of education must be
|
||
devised that will address the problems of specialization as well as the
|
||
ever expanding knowledge base. Luckily, the very technology that mandates
|
||
these changes may also be the means to achieve those lofty goals.
|
||
Currently, computer based training programs and computerized learning
|
||
systems are making new inroads into the problems of knowledge acquisition
|
||
and skill reorientation. Once the methods for further integrating the
|
||
human senses with the computer's processing capabilities have been
|
||
developed, these benefits will become the basis for most educational
|
||
systems. It seems obvious that an improved access path to the human
|
||
consciousness through the use of computerized mechanisms will surely enable
|
||
advances in all manners of communication, education, and perception, than
|
||
ever before.
|
||
|
||
|
||
Adverse Effects
|
||
|
||
Accompanying any new method of social interaction, of course, are
|
||
possible abuses or adverse effects. The advent of the television was
|
||
heralded by many as the downfall of Man's pursuit of knowledge and his
|
||
capacity to communicate with others using traditional media. Since it's
|
||
introduction, however, television has made many things possible that have
|
||
enriched and enhanced the educational and communication fields. But, this
|
||
technology was not without it's problems. Many surveys have shown that if
|
||
improperly regulated, children can become addicted to television and have
|
||
suffered adverse effects. Based on the fact that VR involves a greater
|
||
degree of "user" immersion, VR's adverse effects could be equally greater.
|
||
|
||
Consider that overexposure to television has been blamed for causing
|
||
intellectual degeneration and to some extent even physical problems such as
|
||
visual impairment. Overexposure to VR could result in similar effects, but
|
||
to a greater degree. Carried to the extreme, addiction to VR could lead to
|
||
the inability to distinguish VR from reality. Therefore, safeguards and
|
||
methods of averting potential ill effects such as these from becoming
|
||
widespread must be developed.
|
||
|
||
CONCLUSION
|
||
|
||
After examining the components of virtual reality and it's nature, and
|
||
looking back at where it began, where it is now, and where it appears to be
|
||
heading, it must be re-emphasized that this is still a relatively young
|
||
technology. Only after we begin to refine the techniques and experience
|
||
the possibilities, will we be able to tell what VR means to mankind. But,
|
||
we are beginning to see glimpses of what can be done with this technology
|
||
as well as what it may provide to our society. Whether good or bad, this
|
||
technology is the next step in our societies quest for ever-higher forms of
|
||
science and methods of expression. It is for these reasons that the
|
||
technology must be carefully monitored and integrated into our social
|
||
system, and what better way to start than by using it in entertainment for
|
||
the enjoyment of all.
|
||
|
||
REFERENCES
|
||
|
||
Churbuck, David 1990. The Ultimate Computer Game. Forbes, 5 February,
|
||
154-156.
|
||
Fisher, Scott S. and Jane M. Tazelaar 1990. Living in a Virtual World.
|
||
Byte, July, 215- 221.
|
||
Gleitman, Henry 1986. Psychology. 2nd ed. New York: W. W. Norton &
|
||
Company, Inc.
|
||
Horn, Miriam 1991. Science & Society: Seeing the Invisible. U.S. News &
|
||
World Report, 28 January, 56-58.
|
||
Krueger, Myron 1983. Artificial Reality. New York: Addison-Wesley
|
||
Publishing Company, Inc. 1991. Artificial Reality II. New York:
|
||
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
|
||
Lavroff, Nicholas 1992. Virtual Reality Playhouse. Corte Madera: Waite
|
||
Group Press.
|
||
Menzel, Peter 1990. Interview: Jaron Lanier. Omni, December, 45-46;
|
||
116-117.
|
||
Newquist, Harvey P. 1992. Virtual Reality's Commercial Reality.
|
||
Computerworld, March 30, 93-95.
|
||
Ostman, Charles 1992. 3D Video. Midnight Engineering, Nov-Dec, 10-13.
|
||
Rheingold, Howard 1991. Virtual Reality. New York: Summit Books.
|
||
Welter, Therese R. 1990. The Artificial Tourist. Industry Week, October
|
||
1, 66.
|