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Research Report 01-0024
Artificial Intelligence Programs
The University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia 30602
Available by ftp from
aisun1.ai.uga.edu
(128.192.12.9)
Series editor:
Michael Covington
mcovingt@aisun1.ai.uga.edu
0
1
From English to Prolog via
Discourse Representation Theory
ACMC Research Report 01-0024
Michael A. Covington
Donald Nute
Nora Schmitz
David Goodman
Advanced Computational Methods Center
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia 30602
April 1988
1. Introduction/Abstract
This is a preliminary report on a set of techniques for translating the
discourse representation structures (DRSes) of Kamp (1981) into
semantically equivalent clauses in a slightly extended form of Prolog.
Together with discourse representation theory (DRT) itself, these
techniques yield a system for translating English into Prolog. A working
prototype has been built using Quintus Prolog on a VAX workstation.1
2. Methodology
Both computational linguistics and natural language semantics have
reached the stage where precise solutions to small problems are of
greater value than vague proposals for solutions to large problems. This
paper is offered in that spirit.
Discourse representation theory (DRT) covers only a subset of the
semantic phenomena of English, not including, for example, plurals or
definite noun phrases. Prolog, even with our extensions, is less powerful
than classical logic, which in turn is less powerful than natural
language. So any system that translates English to Prolog via DRT can
accept no more than a subset of English. Nonetheless, this subset is
large enough to display clearly the solutions to a variety of problems of
semantic representation -- solutions that will carry over into a more
comprehensive theory when one is developed.
The following are among the design goals of our system:
1 This work was supported by National Science Foundation
Grant Number IST-85-02477. Opinions and conclusions expressed here
are solely those of the authors.
2
(1) To preserve the main advantage of Prolog -- its ability to perform
inference more rapidly than a full resolution theorem prover by
constraining its search space. This contrasts with the approaches taken
by Guenthner (1986), Kolb (1985, 1987), and a group at Imperial College,
London (Gabbay, personal communication), who built inference engines for
discourse representation structures.
(2) To preserve the main advantage of DRT -- the ability to represent a
text as a single unit by focusing on its semantic and logical structure
rather than on individual sentences or propositions, and hence
incorporating the textual context that is necessary for interpreting each
subsequent sentence.
(3) To represent knowledge and its semantic structure in a form as close
as possible to ordinary Prolog clauses.
We extend Prolog by adding conditional queries (the ability to ask
whether an "if-then" relation holds), explicit negation (rather than
negation as failure), and a table of identity that enables non-unifiable
terms to be treated as equivalent for some purposes.
3. Discourse representation theory
3.1. Overview of DRT
Discourse representation theory (DRT), introduced by Kamp (1981), is a
more satisfactory representation of natural language semantics than
earlier representations such as classical logic or Montague grammar. The
key properties of DRT include the following:
(1) It is not sentence-based. DRT constructs representations of
discourses, not sentences. These representations are called discourse
representation structures (DRSes). Rather than building a DRS for each
sentence, we build a single DRS to which each sentence contributes some
material, using the previously present material as context.
(2) It is not tied closely to the syntax of English nor to a particular
theory of syntax. Any syntactic analysis suitable for determining meaning
can be used in an implementation of DRT.
(3) Structural restrictions on the accessibility of anaphoric antecedents
are predicted correctly.
(4) A theory of truth-conditions is built in. Truth is defined in terms
of embedding the DRS in a model. Thus DRT preserves the advantages of
predicate logic as a representation language while bringing the
formalization closer to the structure of natural language.
3.2. Discourse representation structures
3
A discourse representation structure is an ordered pair <U,Con> where U
is a universe of discourse, i.e., a set of discourse entities, and Con is
a set of conditions, i.e., predicates or equations that these entities
must fulfill. For example, the sentence
A farmer owns a donkey.
is represented by the DRS
U={X1,X2}
Con={farmer(X1),donkey(X2),owns(X1,X2)}
or in more usual notation:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20>
<20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
The truth of a DRS is defined by trying to embed it in a model. A model
comprises a domain D, i.e., a set of entities that can be discussed, and
an interpretation function I that maps every n-place predicate of the
language onto a set of n-tuples of elements of D, and maps every logical
constant of the language onto an individual in D.
Intuitively, D is the set of things you can talk about (including
imaginary as well as real entities); I(farmer) is the set of elements of
D that are farmers; and I(owns) is the set of pairs of elements of D such
that the first one owns the second one.
To embed a DRS into a model, assign each discourse variable (X1 and X2
above) to an element of D. The DRS is true in the model if and only if it
can be embedded in such a way that all of the conditions are satisfied.
Thus, the DRS above is true in a particular model if, within that model,
it is possible to assign X1 to a farmer and X2 to a donkey which is owned
by that farmer.
3.3. Equations
Our implementation treats is as a predicate that requires two discourse
variables to refer to the same individual. For example, the sentence
Pedro is a farmer.
is represented as:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
4
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Pedro') <20>
<20> farmer(X2) <20>
<20> X1 = X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
This is a temporary measure that will be replaced by a fully developed
table of identity (section 6.1 below).
3.4. Conditionals ("if-thens")2
An "if-then" relationship between two propositions is expressed by a
special type of DRS condition. Thus
A farmer owns a donkey. If it is hungry he feeds it.
is represented as:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20>
<20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20> <20> hungry(X2) <20> ==> <20> feeds(X1,X2) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
Crucially, one of the conditions of this DRS consists of two more DRSes
joined by '==>'. In general, the condition
DRS1 ==> DRS2
is satisfied (in a particular model) if and only if
every embedding that satisfies DRS1 also satisfies, or can be
extended to satisfy, DRS2.
By saying 'extended' we leave open the possibility that DRS2 may contain
new variables of its own, which will need to be assigned to individuals
in the universe of discourse. This extends the embedding of DRS1 and of
the surrounding larger DRS, which did not assign these variables.
2 We will call these "if-thens" rather than "conditionals"
because the term "conditional" is too easily confused with
"condition," and because some DRT "if-then" structures correspond
to sentences such as All men are mortal, which are called
universals rather than conditionals in ordinary philosophical
discourse.
5
Note that the new variables of DRS1, if any, have implicit universal
quantifiers, and the new variables of DRS2 have implicit existential
quantifiers. To satisfy the whole condition, we must find some embedding
of DRS2 to go with every embedding of DRS1. A universal sentence such as
Every farmer owns a donkey.
is actually a kind of if-then; it means "If X is a farmer, then X owns a
donkey" and is represented as:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20>
<20> <20> X1 <20> <20> X2 <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20> <20> farmer(X1) <20> <20> donkey(X2) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20> owns(X1,X2) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
That is: "Every embedding that assigns X1 to a farmer can be extended to
form an embedding that assigns X2 to a donkey owned by X1." Or in
ordinary language, "For every farmer X1, there is some donkey X2 owned by
X1."
Because the quantifiers are implicit and there are no sentence
boundaries, some familiar problems of quantifier scope no longer arise.
Consider for example the discourse
A farmer owns a donkey. He feeds it.
In classical logic the first sentence would be
(Some X)(Some Y) farmer(X) & donkey(Y) & owns(X,Y).
The second sentence must somehow have access to the same donkey and the
same farmer, but if it is treated as a separate proposition, its
variables cannot be under the scope of the same quantifiers. Any
translation into classical logic will therefore need a special, explicit
rule for combining two propositions into one. In DRT, on the other hand,
this combining is implicit and automatic; sentences keep being added to
the same DRS until there is a reason not to do so.
3.5. Anaphora and accessibility
A DRS can use its own discourse variables and those of DRSes which are
superordinate to it. Whenever a DRS contains another DRS, the outer DRS
is superordinate to the inner one. Further, the left side of an if-then
is superordinate to the right side, and superordinateness is transitive.
6
When one DRS is superordinate to another, we will say that the second DRS
is subordinate to the first.
This restriction makes correct predictions about the accessibility of
antecedents to anaphors (Kamp 1981).
3.6. Negation
DRT represents negated assertions as DRSes within DRSes, preceded by the
negation operator (here written NEG). Thus
Pedro owns a donkey. He does not beat it.
is represented by:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Pedro') <20>
<20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20>
<20> NEG:<3A><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20> <20> beats(X1,X2) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
A condition of the form NEG DRSx is satisfied if and only if there is no
extension of the current embedding that makes DRSx true.
Thus the above DRS is true in a model if there is an assignment of X1 and
X2 such that X1 is Pedro and X2 is a donkey owned by Pedro, and this
assignment cannot be extended to satisfy the condition that X1 beats X2.
We note in passing a logical problem: what if Pedro owns two donkeys? DRT
allows us to choose the "wrong" donkey -- the one he does not beat -- and
use it to satisfy the above DRS even though it is not clear that this
move would be faithful to the meaning of the original English-language
discourse. This is related to the problem that present versions of DRT do
not address plurals at all.
3.7. Questions
Kamp's DRT provides no way to distinguish statements from questions. We
treat yes-no questions as DRSes within DRS-conditions, marked with the
operator QUERY. Conditions of this type can appear only in the topmost
DRS, not in subordinate DRSes.
The most common use of questions in a natural language understanding
system is to request information from the computer. Accordingly, we posit
7
that a question does not contribute to the knowledge base, but rather
directs the hearer to test the truth of the included DRS and report the
result. Thus the discourse:
Maria is a woman. Is she happy?
is represented as
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Maria') <20>
<20> woman(X1) <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20>
<20> QUERY:<3A><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20> <20> happy(X1) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
A more general representation of questions would also be able to specify
variables whose values should be reported (e.g., "Who owns a donkey?").
4. DRS construction
The DRS-building algorithm used in this project is that described by
Covington and Schmitz (1988), a unification-based grammar modeled closely
on that of Johnson and Klein (1986).
A DRS is represented by a Prolog term drs(U,Con) where U is a list of
discourse variables and Con is a list of structures containing these
variables. In Prolog, the fastest way to build a list is to add material
at the beginning. As a result, the elements of U and Con appear in the
opposite of the order in which they occur in the discourse; this
obviously has no effect on their truth conditions. Further, Con contains
additional predicates specifying the gender of every discourse variable,
to make it possible to find the antecedents of anaphoric pronouns.
In the Covington and Schmitz implementation, discourse variables were
represented by unique integers, but here they are unique Prolog
variables. This makes it possible to perform skolemization (described
below) by simply instantiating heretofore uninstantiated Prolog
variables.
For example, A man owns a donkey is represented as
drs([X2,X1],[owns(X1,X2),
gender(X2,n),
donkey(X2),
gender(X1,m),
man(X1)].
8
Proper names are represented by the predicate named, as in
named(X3,'Pedro')
thus leaving open the possibility of two or more people with the same
name, or two or more names for the same person.
Special DRS-conditions of the following forms represent, respectively,
negated assertions, questions, and if-thens:
neg(drs(...,...))
query(drs(...,...))
ifthen(drs(...,...))
These are elements of Con just like ordinary conditions.
The implementation has the ability to resolve anaphors, and for this
purpose, it uses the gender predicate to specify the gender of each
discourse variable. The antecedent of he, she, or it is the most recently
mentioned discourse variable of the appropriate gender which is found in
the current DRS or a DRS superordinate to it.
The discourse variable for the anaphor and the discourse variable for the
antecedent are unified by the anaphora resolver so they are for all
practical purposes identical.
5. Translation into Prolog
5.1. Discarding irrelevant information
The first step in translating a DRS into a set of Prolog clauses and/or
queries is to "clean up" the output of the DRS-builder by discarding
irrelevant information. This involves discarding all the DRS-conditions
that describe gender.
Further, the verb is introduces conditions that say that two discourse
variables must be the same individual. For example, the sentence
Pedro is a farmer.
is represented (ignoring gender information) as:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Pedro') <20>
<20> farmer(X2) <20>
<20> X1 = X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
9
In the present implementation, the clean-up routine simply unifies X1
with X2, giving:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Pedro') <20>
<20> farmer(X1) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
We will see in Section 6.1 that in some cases, two equated discourse
variables may not be unifiable after skolemization. A more adequate
implementation would leave the equation in the DRS and later mark the
equated discourse variables as equivalent in the table of identity.
5.2. Simple questions
The easiest sentences to translate into Prolog are simple questions such
as
Does Pedro own a donkey?
which are, in effect, instructions to test the truth of a DRS in the
model defined by the current knowledge base. The queried DRS is:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Pedro') <20>
<20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
We want to know whether there is an assignment of values to X1 and X2
such that named(X1,'Pedro'), donkey(X2), and owns(X1,X2) will all be
satisfied.
Ex hypothesi, the interpretations of named, donkey, and owns -- that is,
the sets of argument tuples that satisfy them -- are given by the
definitions of these predicates in Prolog. Thus our task is exactly
equivalent to solving the Prolog query:
?- named(X1,'Pedro'), donkey(X2), owns(X1,X2).
Variables in Prolog queries have implicit existential quantifiers; so do
free variables in DRSes whose truth is being tested. For this type of
sentence, then, the semantics of Prolog and of DRT match closely.
5.3. Simple assertions
10
Assertions -- statements of fact -- are slightly more complicated to
handle. Clearly, the DRS for
A farmer owns a donkey.
-- namely
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20>
<20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
should be translated by adding something to the knowledge base. But what
should we add?
We can't just leave the variables free, generating the clauses
farmer(X1).
donkey(X2).
owns(X1,X2).
because free variables in Prolog facts and rules have implicit universal
quantifiers. In satisfying a Prolog query, free variables match anything,
so these clauses would mean "Anything is a farmer; anything is a donkey;
anything owns anything." In fact, because like-named variables in
different clauses are distinct, we haven't even succeeded in saying that
the donkey is the same as the thing that is owned.
Rather, we must provide "dummy names" for existentially quantified
entities -- one-element lists with distinct integers inside. We will call
the hypothetical farmer [1] and call the hypothetical donkey [2], and
assert the facts:
farmer([1]).
donkey([2]).
owns([1],[2]).
Now if we "Is there a farmer that owns a donkey?" -- i.e., the query
?- farmer(X), donkey(Y), owns(X,Y).
we get the answer that there is, and that the farmer is known as [1] and
the donkey is known as [2].
This is a special case of skolemization, to be dealt with below. In a
later implementation, we will use a table of identity to ensure that
distinct names can be recognized as referring to the same individual when
necessary.
11
Even proper names are not treated as logical constants. Thus, Pedro owns
a donkey goes into Prolog as:
named([1],'Pedro').
owns([1],[2]).
donkey([2]).
There would be little advantage in using proper names as logical
constants because no proper names are available for most individuals.
Further, by using the predicate named we allow for ambiguous names and
for individuals with more than one name.
5.4. Simple if-thens
In the simplest case, an if-then DRS condition is equivalent to a Prolog
rule. Consider the DRS condition:
Every old donkey is gray.
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> donkey(X1) <20> ==> <20> gray(X1) <20>
<20> old(X1) <20> <20> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
This condition is true if and only if every embedding that satisfies its
antecedent -- that is, every embedding that assigns X1 to an old donkey -
- also assigns X1 to a gray donkey.
If this if-then condition is known to be true, then, for any X, we can
infer that X is gray if we can prove that X is old and is a donkey. This
is exactly equivalent to the Prolog rule:
gray(X) :- donkey(X), old(X).
Here again Prolog semantics exactly matches DRT.
5.5. Distributing consequents
A minor syntactic problem arises if the consequent contains more than one
predicate, as in the following:
Every donkey is furry and warm-blooded.
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> donkey(X1) <20> ==> <20> furry(X1) <20>
<20> <20> <20> warm-blooded(X1) <20>
12
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
A Prolog rule cannot have two predicates in its consequent; rules of the
form
furry(X1), warm-blooded(X1) :- donkey(X1).
are not permitted. We deal with this by defining, for purposes of
internal representation, an operator ::- which is like the usual 'if' (:-
) except that:
(1) Both the antecedent and the consequent can be compound goals;
(2) Queries can be headed by ::-, i.e., one can ask whether an if-
then relation holds.
Rules headed by ::- are never asserted directly into the knowledge base.
Instead, when an if-then is to be asserted, the consequent is broken up
and a series of ordinary Prolog rules is generated. A rule of the form
a, b, c ::- d, e, f.
is added to the knowledge base as the three rules:
a :- d, e, f.
b :- d, e, f.
c :- d, e, f.
This is known as distributing consequents. For very complex consequents,
a more compact representation could be obtained by creating a new symbol
x (taking as arguments are all the arguments of d, e, and f, if any) and
asserting, instead, the four rules:
x :- d, e, f.
a :- x.
b :- x.
c :- x.
This was not done in the current implementation.
5.6. Skolemization
If the consequent of an if-then introduces new variables, these variables
have implicit existential quantifiers, which Prolog cannot represent.
Thus
Every farmer owns a donkey.
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
13
<20> farmer(X1) <20> ==> <20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> <20> <20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
is true if and only if, for every embedding that assigns X1 to a farmer,
there is some embedding that assigns X2 to a donkey owned by X1.
In Prolog (extended with ::-), if we were to say
donkey(X2), owns(X1,X2) ::- farmer(X1).
we would be saying that every farmer owns every donkey. If we gave the
donkey a dummy name, say [92], we would not be much better off, because
donkey([92]), owns(X1,[92]) ::- farmer(X1).
would mean that every farmer owns the same donkey (this particular one
identified as [92]).
What we want to say is that every farmer owns a different donkey. This is
achieved by giving the donkey a dummy name that contains X1 so that, in
effect, the name depends on the assignment of X1:3
donkey([92|X1]), owns(X1,[92,X1]) ::- farmer(X1).
Then if we assign X1 to an individual named [83] who is a farmer, we get
a donkey named [92,83]; if we assign X1 to another farmer named [17], we
get a donkey named [92,17]; and so on. The table of identity described
below will enable us to equate [92,17] with a donkey already known under
another dummy name if necessary.
This is a form of skolemization, the method of eliminating existential
quantifiers proposed by Skolem (1928). Skolemization replaces every
existentially quantified variable with a function whose value is an
individual that satisfies the formula. For instance, in classical logic,
(All X) (Some Y) g(X,Y)
can be replaced by
(All X) g(X,f(X))
where f is a function which, given a value of X, yields a value of Y that
would satisfy the original formula. The existential quantifier is nothing
more than a claim that such a function exists. Its arguments are all the
universally quantified variables in the scope of whose quantifier the
existentially quantified variable occurs. Thus if every farmer owns a
donkey, there is (or can be) a different donkey for each farmer, and the
3 Recall that | divides a list into head and tail in Prolog,
so that [a|[b,c,d]] is equivalent to [a,b,c,d].
14
Skolem function for the existentially quantified donkey must take as an
argument the universally quantified farmer.
In large formulae, there are often some universally quantified variables
that can be shown to be irrelevant to a particular predicate; these need
not be arguments of the Skolem function, though it does no harm to use
them. Andrews (1986:123-127) compares various methods of skolemization
and shows how to eliminate unneeded arguments.
To skolemize an if-then structure in a DRS, we replace all the variables
in the consequent with Skolem functions of the variables in the
antecedent. A Prolog term such as [92|X1] has a value that is a function
of the value of X1; this makes it an appropriate way to encode a Skolem
function. Thus, for example, the DRS-condition
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20> ==> <20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20> <20> <20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
is transformed into:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> [92,X1] <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20> ==> <20> donkey([92,X1]) <20>
<20> <20> <20> owns(X1,[92,X1]) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
which goes into extended Prolog as
donkey([92,X1]), owns(X1,[92,X1]) ::- farmer(X1)
and is asserted as the two Prolog rules:
donkey([92,X1]) :- farmer(X1).
owns(X1,[92,X1]) :- farmer(X1).
The number 92 here is of course arbitrary, produced by a routine that
returns a heretofore unused integer every time it is called.
5.7. Queried if-thens
"Is every old donkey gray?" may mean either of two things. It may mean,
"If you are told that something is an old donkey, can you deduce that it
is gray?" Or it may mean "Are all the old donkeys that you know of gray?"
We will call these the deductive and inductive approaches to querying an
if-then.
15
The deductive approach is easily implemented using a technique suggested
by Gabbay and Reyle (1984): invent a hypothetical individual, temporarily
assert that it is an old donkey, and test whether it can be deduced to be
gray. We put this into our implementation by defining ::- as a Prolog
predicate so that queries of the form A ::- B can be answered:
(A ::- B) :- skolemize(B,[]),
asserta(B),
test(A,Result),
retract(B),
Result = yes.
That is, to test whether A ::- B holds, first replace all the variables
in B with dummy names, then temporarily add B to the knowledge base,4
then try to deduce A. Here test(A,Result) is a metalogical predicate that
instantiates Result to yes or no depending on whether A succeeds; test
itself succeeds in either case.
Note that this works only as long as A ::- B does not rely on negation as
failure. If we were trying to test the validity of
gray(X) ::- donkey(X)
and the knowledge base contained only the rule
gray(X) :- donkey(X), not young(X).
we would get wrong results. We would assert something like donkey([27])
and then query gray([27]). The hypothetical donkey would be taken to be
"not young" simply because we did not assert that it is young, and
gray([27]) would therefore be derivable, leading to the mistaken
conclusion that gray(X) is derivable from donkey(X) in all cases.
We avoid this problem by using an explicit (positive) way of representing
negation (Section 6.2).
The inductive approach says that A ::- B is true if (a) there are no
cases in the knowledge base that satisfy B without satisfying A, and (b)
there are enough cases that satisfy B to warrant making an inductive
generalization. That is, all donkeys are gray if the knowledge base
contains a sufficient number of donkeys and none of them fail to be gray.
The value of this "sufficient number" is open to question; in a human
thinker it depends on, among other things, the size of the overall
sample, the rarity of the phenomenon being described, the expected
regularity, and the thinker's training in statistics. Here we will take
4 A practical implementation would allow B to be a compound
goal and would replace asserta and retract with procedures that
assert and retract all of the conjuncts of which B is composed.
16
it to be 1. Thus we add another rule to the definition of the predicate
::- as follows:
(A ::- B) :- not (B, not A), /* No counterexamples */
B. /* One positive example */
This provides all that is needed to handle queries that ask whether an
if-then is true.
Note that queried if-thens are not skolemized. In the context of a query,
free Prolog variables are taken to be existentially quantified, exactly
as the DRT semantics requires.
5.8. Nested if-thens
5.8.1. Nested antecedents: Prolog subgoals
Because if-thens can be queried on the Prolog level, they can appear as
subgoals in a Prolog rule. This provides a way to handle an if-then
within the antecedent of an if-then. Consider for example the DRS:
If every farmer owns a donkey, a man is happy.
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ<EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20><> X1 <20> <20> X2 <20><> <20> X3 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ<EFBFBD> ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20><> farmer(X1) <20> <20> donkey(X2) <20><> <20> man(X3) <20>
<20><> <20> <20> owns(X1,X2) <20><> <20> happy(X3) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>ٳ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
Because the antecedent of an if-then is like a query, the inner if-then
will not be skolemized.5 X3 is skolemized by a Skolem function with no
arguments; its arguments should be the variables of the antecedent as a
whole, and in this example there are none. So the resulting Prolog
clauses are:
man([57]) :- ( (donkey(X2), owns(X1,X2)) ::- farmer(X1) ).
happy([57]) :- ( (donkey(X2), owns(X1,X2)) ::- farmer(X1) ).
That is: [57] is a man and is happy if it is the case that for every
farmer X1, there is a donkey X2 that is owned by X1.
5.8.2. Nested consequents: Exportation
5 The present implementation erroneously skolemizes the
antecedents of all if-then structures, even in queried contexts.
17
Nesting in the consequent of an if-then is more complicated. Consider the
sentence:
If Pedro is brave then every woman admires him.
The corresponding DRS is:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ ==> <20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20>
<20> named(X1,'Pedro')<29> <20> <20> X2 <20> <20> <20> <20>
<20> brave(X1) <20> <20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20> <20> woman(X2) <20> <20> admires(X2,X1) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
Naively, this should go into Prolog as something like
( admires(X2,X1) ::- woman(X2) ) :- named(X1,'Pedro'),
brave(X1).
But this will not do. The above DRS can be used to infer that a particular
woman -- Maria, for instance -- admires Pedro. The Prolog rule cannot; at best
it would match a query asking whether the if-then relation admires(X2,X1) ::-
woman(X2) holds.
In cases like this we employ the procedure of exportation, familiar from
classical logic, which enables us to transform
if P then (if Q then R)
into
if P and Q then R.
Actual DRSes are not as neat as the formulae of classical logic, and
practical questions arise, illustrated by the following example:
18
Every farmer owns a donkey, and if it's hungry he feeds it.
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20> <20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20> <20> hungry(X2) <20> ==> <20> feeds(X1,X2) <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
Like all if-thens, this is not a self-standing DRS, but rather a
condition in a larger DRS. Exportation should break it into two
conditions:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> X2 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20> <20> donkey(X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20> owns(X1,X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 <20> <20> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20> <20> feeds(X1,X2) <20>
<20> donkey(X2) <20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
<20> owns(X1,X2)<29>
<20> hungry(X2) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
The first of these comprises the material in the original if-then that
was not affected by exportation. The second is the result of exporting
the inner if-then. Its consequent is the consequent of the inner if-then.
Its antecedent is a combination of the antecedent of the outer if-then,
the antecedent of the inner if-then, and, crucially, the consequent of
the outer if-then, except for the part actually being exported. If
donkey(X2) were not in the antecedent of the second structure, nothing
would say what kind of animal the farmer was feeding.
This procedure, if followed ruthlessly, leads to excessively complex
formulas. Suppose the outer if-then has two if-thens in its consequent,
and we are exporting one of them. The antecedent of the result should
contain, inter alia, all the other conditions from the consequent of the
original outer if-then. And one of these is itself an if-then. This is
not forbidden -- after all, nesting of if-thens in the antecedent is
permitted. But the two if-thens in the original consequent cannot use
each other's variables, since neither is superordinate to the other. So
19
it seems unlikely, if not impossible, for one of them to play an
essential role in identifying the entities used by the other.
The actual implementation takes a more modest approach. The if-then
structure created by exportation has in its antecedent all the variables
and conditions of the antecedents of the inner and outer if-thens, and
all the variables, but only some of the conditions, of the consequent of
the outer if-then. Specifically, it has the conditions which (a) are
simple, not involving nesting of if-thens, and (b) occurred prior to the
inner if-then in the discourse. This seems to be adequate for natural
langauge in actual use.
6. Remaining issues
6.1. The table of identity
Individuals introduced into the discourse under different names or Skolem
functions may later be discovered to be identical. For example:
Thales observes Hesperus.
Aristotle observes Phosphorus.
Hesperus is (the same as) Phosphorus.
The DRS for the first two sentences is:
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 X2 X3 X4 <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> named(X1,'Thales') <20>
<20> named(X2,'Hesperus') <20>
<20> observes(X1,X2) <20>
<20> named(X3,'Aristotle') <20>
<20> named(X4,'Phosphorus') <20>
<20> observes(X3,X4) <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
Assuming incremental processing, each DRS condition will be skolemized
and entered into the knowledge base as soon as its sentence is processed,
if not sooner. Thus, at the end of the second sentence, we have:
named([1],'Thales').
named([2],'Hesperus').
observes([1],[2]).
named([3],'Aristotle').
named([4],'Phosphorus').
observes([3],[4]).
But now we discover from the third sentence that Hesperus and Phosphorus
are different names for the same entity. We would like to note this fact
in such a way that we can later ask,
20
Does Aristotle observe Hesperus?
?- named(X,'Aristotle'), named(Y,'Hesperus'), observes(X,Y).
and get "yes" as a reply. But Hesperus and Phosphorus have been
skolemized as non-unifiable entities, [3] and [4], so we can't just unify
them.
We have two options. One is to go back through the knowledge base and
change all occurrences of [4] to [3], or vice versa. The other, which we
actually adopt, is to maintain a table of identity so that non-unifiable
terms can be recognized as equivalent. We will then formulate the query
as:
?- named(X,'Aristotle'), identical(X,X1),
named(Y,'Hesperus'), identical(Y,Y1),
observes(X1,Y1).
Each argument -- X and Y -- is now passed through an extra level of
indirectness. On the first attempt, the identical predicate simply
unifies its two arguments, instantiating X1 to X and Y1 to Y, so that the
query works exactly like our earlier proposal. But if this fails, it
looks at the table of identity and tries to instantiate X1 and X to two
different terms that refer to the same object, and likewise with Y1 and
Y. Thus, if [3] and [4] have been entered in the table, they will be
treated as equivalent.
This query looks verbose, but in fact it is generated by a simple
transformation of the original query: just insert calls to identical for
any arguments that are used in more than one subgoal. An alternative
would be to modify the inference engine so that it consults the table of
identity when solving queries.
The table of identity has been prototyped but not yet integrated with the
main English-to-Prolog translation system. The problem is that identity
is a symmetric (commutative) and transitive relation. Thus it would
require the rules
identical(X,Y) :- identical(Y,X).
identical(X,Z) :- identical(X,Y), identical(Y,Z).
which would cause loops under some conditions by calling themselves
endlessly.
Our solution is to store the table as an identity matrix represented by a
set of Prolog facts. The predicate identical is defined by only facts,
not rules, and hence cannot loop. All the appropriate facts are generated
when an entry is made into the table.
Initially, only the clause
identical(X,X).
21
is in the knowledge base; this corresponds to the main diagonal of the
matrix and ensures that any term will be treated as identical to itself.
Additional entries are made by a predicate make_identical. Calling
make_identical(a,b), for example, adds not only the facts
identical(a,b).
identical(b,a).
but also any other facts called for by transitivity. For example, if
identical(a,c) were already in the knowledge base, then
make_identical(a,b) would add four facts:
identical(a,b).
identical(b,a).
identical(c,b).
identical(b,c).
The Prolog code to do this reflects the 2x2 dimensionality of the
identity matrix:
make_identical(X,Y) :-
setof(X1,identical(X,X1),XMatches),
setof(Y1,identical(Y,Y1),YMatches),
make_id_list_squared(XMatches,YMatches).
make_id_list_squared([],_).
make_id_list_squared([H|T],List) :-
make_id_list(H,List),
make_id_list_squared(T,List).
make_id_list(_,[]).
make_id_list(X,[H|T]) :-
(identical(X,H) ; assert(identical(X,H))),
(identical(H,X) ; assert(identical(H,X))),
make_id_list(X,T).
If the table of identity contains information for n individuals, it will
contain at most n2 clauses for identical, and usually considerably fewer.
6.2. Negation
The current implementation does not handle negation. We propose to handle
negation as a metalogical predicate neg, as in d-Prolog (Nute and Lewis
1986:6-7). Thus it will be possible to assert
neg donkey([2]).
to say "Individual [2] is not a donkey."
22
Negative statements are not defined in terms of affirmative ones, nor
vice versa. From the inference engine's point of view, donkey([2]) and
neg donkey([2]) are completely unrelated facts and each must be queried
separately. Crucially, neither of them follows from the inability to
derive the other. The knowledge base could even contain both of them,
though it would then express a contradiction. Special routines could of
course be written to detect contradictions and identify the premises from
which they arise.
This solves the problem with queried if-thens that we mentioned earlier.
In this system, the sentence "Every donkey that is not young is gray"
translates to:
gray(X) :- donkey(X), neg young(X).
Now, in order to test whether all donkeys are gray, we assert the
hypothesis
donkey([23]).
and see if we can prove gray([23]). Using the above rule, we cannot. The
subgoal donkey([23]) succeeds, but the subgoal neg young([23]) does not,
because we never asserted neg young([23]) or anything from which it is
derivable. Thus the erroneous result does not occur.
6.3. Modal subordination
The DRT account of pronominal anaphora in conditional sentences
presupposes a simple discourse structure in which antecedent clauses are
always superordinate to their consequent clauses. For example:
(1) If a farmer owns a donkey, he loves it.
(2) If a farmer owns every donkey, he beats it.
In (1), it can refer to a donkey, which is in a DRS superordinate to it.
But in (2), it cannot refer to every donkey, because the donkey is
introduced in a subordinate DRS:
If a farmer owns every donkey, he beats it.
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ
<20> X1 <20> <20> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ
<20> farmer(X1) <20> ==> <20> beats(X1,X2) <20>
<20> <20> <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ŀ <20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
<20> <20> X2 <20> <20> <20> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ==> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>Ĵ <20>
<20> <20> donkey(X2)<29> <20> owns(X1,X2)<29> <20>
<20> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD> <20>
<20><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
23
Hence the underlined occurrence of X2 is illegal and the anaphoric
reference is not permitted.
However, consider the following example (Roberts 1985, 1987):
(3) a. If a farmer owns a donkey, he feeds it lots of hay.
b. It soon grows fat on this diet.
Fragment (3) cannot possibly be called ungrammatical or even dubiously
grammatical. Clearly, sentence (3b) needs to go into the consequent of
the if-then structure established by (3a). Neither the truth-conditions
nor the anaphoric reference is handled correctly unless this is done. But
the rules for DRT, as formulated so far, do not provide for this.
Roberts (1985, 1987) refers to this phenomenon as "modal subordination" -
- semantically, the mood (modus) of the second sentence makes it behave
like a subordinate clause in the first sentence, even though
syntactically it is an independent clause. Goodman (1988) independently
noticed the phenomenon and called it "multi-sentence consequents."
To handle modal subordination correctly, we must:
(1) formulate rules for recognizing modally subordinate sentences,
based on appropriate choices of verb moods and tenses, presence of
anaphors, and other indicators;
(2) build these rules into the DRS construction algorithm.
Implicit in this refinement of DRT is the recognition that discourse is
more complex than early versions of DRT admitted. Instead of one single
topmost DRS into which all independent clauses are inserted, an adequate
theory of discourse will need to provide for a complex hierarchical
structure including such things as subplots within a main plot, different
mainplots at the same level, dialogues, and the like.
Present DRT is indeed discourse-oriented (as opposed to sentence- or
proposition-oriented) when dealing with simple declarative sentences, but
as soon as if-thens, negations or queries are involved, the DRS
construction rules crucially rely on syntactic sentence boundaries
(sentence final punctuation) as a trigger for DRS embedding. Non-
syntactic intersentential links, for example modal subordination, are
ignored.
6.4. Loop removal
In the present implementation, a sentence such as
Every gray donkey is an old donkey.
goes into extended Prolog as
donkey(X), old(X) ::- donkey(X), gray(X).
24
and is asserted as:
donkey(X) :- donkey(X), gray(X).
old(X) :- donkey(X), gray(X).
The first of these clauses sends Prolog into endless recursion. A simple
syntactic readjustment rule needs to be added to remove loops of this
type.
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25
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