1753 lines
75 KiB
Plaintext
1753 lines
75 KiB
Plaintext
Last update: December 16, 1995
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This is the FAQ for rec.crafts.winemaking. If you have any additions,
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deletions, corrections, comments, questions or the like, please direct
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them to r.c.w. or Don Buchan at malak@cam.org
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Copyright notice:
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Copyright (c) 1995 by Don Buchan, all rights reserved. This FAQ may be
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distributed to any USENET newsgroup, on-line service, BBS or any other
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means, electronic or physical (such as, but not limited to, floppy
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diskettes and printouts) as long as:
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A) it is distributed in its entirety,
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B) no fee is charged to anyone:
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i) downloading this file beyond nominal online fees, or
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ii) receiving the information beyond nominal format charges,
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C) it is not distributed for financial gain. To be included in
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commercial collections or compilations (except online services as
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allowed above), express permission from Don Buchan (malak@cam.org) must
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be obtained.
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Academic or professional use and accuracy:
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In the case of academic use, follow the guidelines set out at your
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institution for referencing electronic texts, provided that my name,
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Don Buchan, and email ID, malak@cam.org, are referenced as
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editor/compilor. I suggest as title "FAQ List for Usenet Usegroup
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rec.crafts.winemaking".
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I am not an oenologist, nor is this text guaranteed to be 100% accurate. No liability or warranty, express or implied, is assumed by the editor
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or contributors. If you see an error, please point it out to me.
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While the text does treat the actual procedures of making wine to
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varying degrees, it is assumed that you already have a basic knowledge
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of how to make wine. If you don't, request the primers mentioned in
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the NET RESOURCES posting for wine & winemaking.
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Spelling conventions & editing:
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The editor has tried to edit for brevity in some cases, therefore
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contributions may be shorter than submitted or as originally posted in
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the newsgroup. As well, the word "I" when used is the contributor, not
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necessarily the editor. Text in {} is the original question. Further,
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British (and Canadian) spelling conventions are used. Please don't
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point out "f" instead of "ph" or "gh", that there's no "u" in words, or
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it's "s" instead of "z".
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Measurement conventions:
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An attempt has been made to include imperial, American and metric
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measurments. Therefore when a reference to a gallon is made, it will
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either be identified as an imperial or American gallon, and its
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equivalent in the other size is made as well in litres.
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GENERAL:
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G01. Newsgroup Charter
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G02. Definitions
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G03. How is wine made?
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G04. Yeast
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G05. Possible ingredients
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G06. BTW, can I use jam?
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G07. The recipe calls for tannin. What's the conversion dry to liquid?
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G08. What equipment is required?
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G09. Sucrose vs. corn sugar
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G10. Kits vs. Grapes or Fruit
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G11. What are the usual sizes used in home winemaking?
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G12. Barrels
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G13. Sanitation
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G14. Procedure
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G15. Why am I adding the bentonite at the beginning?
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G16. Egg white clearing
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G17. Higher alcohol levels
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G18. Sparkling your wine
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G19. Ice wine
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G20. Different kinds of fermentation used in winemaking
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G21. Acid balance
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G22. Chillproofing
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G23. Do all wines contain sulphites?
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G24. How much sulphite is needed?
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G25. Topping up your wine
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G26. How to know when a wine is ready to drink
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G27. Vinometers
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G28. How to measure alcohol levels in your wine
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G29. What's the best paper and adhesive to use for labels?
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G30. Bottles & Corks
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G31. How about distilling my wine?
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G32. What are good references for winemaking?
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TROUBLESHOOTING:
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T01. I didn't rehydrate my yeast. Is that bad?
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T02. Why hasn't my wine started bubbling yet?
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T03. My wine stopped bubbling. What's wrong?
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T04. Foaming problems
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T05. My wine just won't clear. Why not?
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T06. My fined and filtered wine is hazy. What's wrong?
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T07. How do I get rid of the strong paper taste in filtered wine?
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T08. The wine I bottled is fizzy. Why?
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T09. Ornery bottle labels
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T10. My wine smells bad. What happened?
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T11. I've got vinegar. Any hope?
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T12. Mycoderma (Flowers of Wine)
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T13. I rinsed with cold water after sulphiting. Is that bad?
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T14. I need to top up. How do I do it?
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CREDITS
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NET RESOURCES -- Can be found in the seperate posting NET RESOURCES for
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wine & winemaking.
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*******
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GENERAL
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*******
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G01. NEWSGROUP CHARTER
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Name: rec.crafts.winemaking
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Moderation status: unmoderated
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Rec.crafts.winemaking will be a news group dedicated to the discussion
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of the process, recipes, tips, storage, techniques and general exchange
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of lore on the process, methods and history of wine making. The above
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list is not considered exhaustive, and if a discussion is of interest
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to wine makers it may be deemed as appropriate. This group is to be
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general enough to encompass both traditional grape wines as well as
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wines which are generally described as country wines, sparkling wines,
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and champagnes. In general, the appropriateness of a particular
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beverage will be determined by the process involved in its making.
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Essentially, if the process used is that of wine making, then the
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discussion is considered appropriate. This may include such beverages
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as cider or mead. It is recognized that there are topics which are of
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interest to both wine makers and brewers, and posting or cross posting
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of such topics is considered both appropriate and desirable. Personal
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stories and experiences shall be welcome as long as they pertain to the
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craft of wine making.
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G02. DEFINITIONS
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Not all these words appear elsewhere in this FAQ; but those that don't
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are still useful or at least interesting.
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Acid Blend: A blend of (usually) tartaric and malic acids in crystal
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form.
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Bracket (braggot): An alcoholic beverage made with malt and honey;
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thus it bridges the gap between mead and ale.
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Bentonite: A type of finely ground clay that is used as a clarifying
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agent. It is used at varying stages of the process, including at the
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beginning to provide something to which yeast can attach themselves to
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improve growth and help clear out solids from the primary fermentation.
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Campden Tablets: Tablets of a standard amount of compressed sulphite.
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Carboy: A container of five imperial gallons. It is the next commonly
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used size smaller than a demijohn. Carboys are made out of glass or
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plastic and, like a big bottle, have a constricted neck.
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Carbonic Maceration: Fermentation of whole grapes, then pressing
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before racking the wine to secondary.
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Clearing: Clearing is getting the wine to go clear by either fining,
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repeated racking or both.
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Cider: Fermented apple juice.
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Cyser: A mead with apple juice added (and thus you might consider it
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either an apple melomel or a cider with honey).
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Demijohn: A container identical in function and similar in shape to a
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carboy. They typically hold 25 to 64 litres, about 5 to 14 imperial
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gallons, though come in various sizes as small as 1 imperial gallon.
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Fermentation: The anaerobic (no oxygen) digestion of various
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microflora and microfauna. In our case, yeast are anaerobically
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digesting sugar, water and nutrients to produce alcohol.
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Fining: Fining is the use of some agent that will collect the fine
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particles (cloudiness) out of the wine and then fall to the bottom so
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that clear wine can be racked off the top. These substances are
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usually isinglass (ground fishbladders) or a gelatin substance, but
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also include bentonite (a type of clay) and various cationic and
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anionic polymers.
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Hydrometer: A glass bulb with a weight in the bulb, a narrow stick
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like end with a scale inside it that is used to measure properties such
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as liquid density, and in the case of fermentation, usually other
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scales such as Brix, Balling and potential alcohol.
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Kit: A package containing juice concentrate and other ingredients used
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to make wine. Add water and follow the instructions in the box.
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Format varies quite a bit: Some kits are a can of concentrate (add
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your own sugar, yeast, some other ingredients); some are 5kg to 7kg of
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concentrate in a bag, complete with everything needed either in the
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concentrate or seperately in the box, except water; others are 15
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litres of concentrated juice you bring up to 23 litres. There are even
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packets of dehydrated juice crystals in which you add all the water and
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sugar. Sometimes the concentrate is actually a hybrid with the
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concentrated juices of more than one kind of grape (California requires
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at 51% of a given grape to be present to call it that variety, for
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instance. Other areas require 75%.) Quality is discussed in section
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G10. KITS VS. GRAPES OR FRUIT.
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Lees: The solids that have fallen to the bottom of your fermentation
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vessel. Among much else, they contain live and dead yeast.
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Mead: An alcoholic beverage made by the fermentation of honey and
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water. Many ingredients can be added to the basic recipe.
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Melomel: A mead with fruit or fruit juices added.
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Metheglin: A mead with herbs and/or spices added.
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Must: Unfermented wine (ie. grape juice).
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Pectins: Pectins are large binding protein molecules that don't clear
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properly. They're important in jam making, but annoying and
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undesireable in winemaking.
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Pectic Enzyme: Pectic enzymes break up pectin to make smaller
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molecules that clear more easily.
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Primary Fermentation: The stage during which most fermentation takes
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place, usually in a covered widemouthed vessel.
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Pyment: Honey and grape juice fermented together. This can be either
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a fermented combination (as a melomel) or grape wine to which honey is
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added after it is finished. (Current use of the term is inconsistent.)
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Racking: Transferring by siphoning the clear wine/mead off the top of
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a vessel into another closed vessel without transferring the lees at
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the bottom of the first vessel.
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Secondary Fermentation: The stage during which fermentation is
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completed, usually in a closed vessel such as a carboy. This period
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commonly refers to the completion of sugar fermentation by yeast, but
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also refers to the time when other fermentations, particularly
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malolactic fermentation (a bacterial fermentation which converts malic
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acid to lactic acid) takes place. See section G20. DIFFERENT KINDS OF
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FERMENTATION USED IN WINEMAKING.
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sg: Specific gravity. The reading taken from your hydrometer that
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measures the relative density of your must/wine to water. Rarely will
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the reading go above 1.100 as this makes it very difficult for yeast to
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work and this will produce a wine with 14% alcohol, getting in the area
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that yeast have difficulty tolerating.
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Sorbate: Potassium sorbate. A substance that is noxious to yeasts
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and as such is used as a stabilizer. It should be noted that sorbate's
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effectiveness depends on low yeast counts in the wine; if it's high, it
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will be inneffective. Clear your wine properly, and ferment out to sg
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1.000 or less.
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Sulphite (or sulphate): Referring to sodium metabisulphite or
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potassium metabisulphite. A substance that is noxious to many spoilage
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microorganisms and wild yeasts and as such is used as a microbiological
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and oxidative inhibitor and stabilizer. It should be noted that
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sulphite's effectiveness depends on low organism counts in the wine; if
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it's high, it will be inneffective. Clear your wine properly and
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ferment out to sg 1.000 or less. Chemically, sulphite is S03(-4) while
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sulphate is SO4(-6); the desired form in winemaking is sulphite,
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however, the two words are often used (or confused) interchangeably.
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Since sulphate is oxidized sulphite (ie. sulphite reacts with oxygen in
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the air), sulphite also prevents unwanted browning in wine; further,
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too much sulphate in a wine will cause bitterness. Therefore as a rule
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avoid letting your wine contact the air as much as possible.
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Vapour lock: A simple device that looks like a wide letter 'S' laying
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on its side (this is the standard form, there are others). It is
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filled with water (enough that there is no way for air or contaminants
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to flow through it) while allowing the pressure from the fermentation
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to push out. These are also known as fermentation locks and air locks.
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Wine: The fermented juice of fruits having an alcohol content of 7% to
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14% (though higher levels are possible).
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Wort: Unfermented beer.
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G03. HOW IS WINE MADE?
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Essentially, wine is the product of fermented fruit juice, usually
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grapes. Generally, it has an alcoholic content of 7% to 14%. Further,
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this alcoholic content is only derived by fermentation, ie. no
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distillation, and as a general rule distilled products are not added to
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fortify the wine.
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The process of fermenting is basically feeding sugars and nutrients to
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yeast, which then produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. This process
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goes on until either all the sugar is gone or the yeast can no longer
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tolerate the alcoholic content of the wine. Different yeasts produce
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different results, and have different tolerance levels.
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The fruit is crushed to give free-running juice; red wines are usually
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fermented with the skins to maximize colour and tannin extraction. The
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must is sanitized, usually with sulphite, and is innoculated with a
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domesticated yeast; occasionally, the must is allowed to ferment from
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the wild yeasts found on grapeskins, though this method can be
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unreliable and may allow for the growth of undesireable bacteria. The
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wine is racked part way through the process to a closed vessel to
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complete fermentation. This last racking is done in order to avoid
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contamination and oxydation that would be possible during the slow
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fermentation of this period (and therefore low production of a CO2
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blanket over the wine to protect it from such). The wine may or may
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not be stabilized to prevent further fermentation, as well as allowed
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to clear either naturally or with the aid of fining agents, and may be
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further racked off the lees to avoid foul smells and tastes from the
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lees. The wine may be bulk aged before filtering and bottling.
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G04. YEAST
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Here's a list of different kinds of yeast often used with different
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kinds of wine. Ask your dealer for further recommendations.
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Epernay 2
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Slow fermenter; leaves a delicate, perfumey aroma without tropical
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overtones of UCD 594, and a smooth, fruity flavour. Temperature should
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be kept cool to preserve fruitiness. Good for whites and fruits. May
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have trouble going to dryness if used with too-cold or nutrient poor
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wines (like Chardonnay). Sometimes used for Pinot Noir. Foams very
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little.
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California Champagne, UCD 505
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Flocculates superbly, leaving large chunks if left to settle
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undisturbed. White wines have a simple, clean, yeasty quality similar
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to champagne. Recommended for sparkling wines and very aromatic
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fruits.
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Fermivin
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Very fast and vigourous fermenter. Good for stuck fermentations.
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Never use if you want to leave some residual sugar. Provides clean,
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varietal wines. Often used for Cabernet.
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Montrachet
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Can produce varied results. When good, it's very, very good. When
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bad, it's very, very bad. Never use if fruit has been recently
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dusted with sulphur. Has a tendency to product H2S. Starts fast,
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attaining a very high temperature, then slows and sometimes sticks if
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stressed. Very good for reds and full bodied whites that need a hot
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fermentation. Flavours are full and complex and intense in colour.
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Beaujolais
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Intended for carbonic maceration of fresh, fruity red wine. Ferments
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strongly but leaves a grapey sort of fruitiness.
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Pasteur Champagne
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An all purpose white wine yeast sometimes used for reds as well.
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Usually a fast, complete fermentation. Do not use for slow
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fermentations needing residual sugar. Flavours are clean and pleasant
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while body and complexity are not emphasized. Sometimes used for
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stuck fermentations. Despite the name, it is not used for sparkling
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wines.
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Prise de Mousse
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Ferments evenly and usually goes to completion. Clean, slightly yeasty
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aroma does not interfere with varietal flavours. Used for both reds
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and whites.
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Assmanshausen
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Slow fermentation rate with an austere fruitiness. Wines are spicy,
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complex, with medium body and dark colour. Often preferred for Pinot
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Noir. Sometimes needs balancing with oak ageing.
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Beerenauslese
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Used for grapes infected with botrytis. It intensifies the
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apricot/honey flavours produced by the mould.
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Chanson
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Ferments evenly, low H2S production, floculates well, makes compact
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lees. Flavours are refined and elegant with emphasis on varietal
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fruit. Often used for Chardonnay. Prone to sticking in nutrient-
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poor musts.
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Etoile
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Usually used as a tirage yeast but could be used for innoculating the
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cuvee in sparkling wines as well. Has subdued yeastiness with
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crispness.
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Pasteur Red
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Very popular for reds. Fast, strong fermenter used for full bodied
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reds. Yields wines that are complex with cabernet style concentration
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of fruit and colour.
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Pasteur White
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Intended for dry, crisp, white wines. The yeast provides complexity
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instead of fruitiness emphasizing acidity. Sensitive to sudden
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chilling. Foams spectacularly.
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Steinberg
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Produces a distinctive, flowery, complex combination of scents when
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fermented cool. Slows with sudden chilling but usually completes.
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Good for riesling and other german style wines.
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UCD 594
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Starts very very slowly and ferments evenly. Fermentation temperature
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does not change much nor is activity that apparent. Provides a highly
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aromatic character called 'fruit salad' or tropical flavour. Not
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generally used in reds. Sensitive to SO2. May produce excess H2S if
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sulphur dust is on the fruit.
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Some suggestions (depending on styles)
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White wines
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Chardonnay (regular) Chanson, Prise de Mousse
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Chardonnay (heavy) Montrachet
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Chenin Blanc UCD 594, Epernay 2
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Gewurztraminer & Riesling (young/fresh)
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Epernay 2
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Gewurztraminer & Riesling (complex)
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Steinberg
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Muscat UCD 594 or any white wine
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Sauvignon Blanc Chanson, Pasteur White, Prise de Mousse
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Semillon Chanson, Pasteur Champagne
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Red Wines
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Cabernet (regular) Pasteur Red
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Cabernet (other) Pasteur Champagne, Montrachet, Prise de Mousse
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Merlot Pasteur Red, Assmanshausen
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Merlot (for blending) Epernay 2, Beaujolais, Assmanshausen
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Gamay Beaujolais
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Petit Sirah Doesn't matter
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Pinot Noir (light) Beaujolais
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Pinot Noir (regular) Assmanshausen
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White Zin Epernay 2, Prise de Mousse
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Zinfandel, claret style Pasteur Red
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Zinfandel, fruity Prise de Mousse
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Zinfandel, heavy Montrachet
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Zinfandel, over 25 brix Fermivin
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French/American hybrids
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Aurora Epernay 2
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Cayuga Chanson, Prise de Mousse
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Red fruity (Chelois, Foch, etc)
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Epernay 2, Beaujolais
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Red full bodied (Baco, Chambourcin, etc)
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Pasteur Red, Fermivin, Assmanshausen
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Seyval/Vidal Blanc (dry) Chanson, Prise de Mousse
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Seyval/Vidal Blanc (sweet)Epernay 2
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Special types
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Blanc de noirs and Rose Epernay 2, Prise de Mousse
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Carbonic Maceration Beaujolais
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Late Harvest (Botrytis) Beerenauslese, Steinberg
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Port Pasteur Champagne
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Sparkling (cuvee) Eperney 2, Prise de Mousse, Pasteur Champagne
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Sparkling (tirage) Etoile, Calif Champagne, Prise de Mousse
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Stuck fermentations Fermivin, Pasteur Champagne
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Non Grape wines
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Apples Epernay 2, Chanson
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Berry, Cherry Pasteur Red, Beaujolais
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Peach, pear, apricot, plumEpernay 2, C. Champ, Prise de Mousse
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Other Epernay 2
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G05. POSSIBLE INGREDIENTS
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Besides the basic grape juice that most winemakers use, the following
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is a non-exhaustive list of possible additives or even bases for your
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wine.
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Honey, Sugar (sucrose -- white table sugar), Corn Syrup (glucose) (most
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commercial corn syrup has vanilla added), Corn Sugar (dextrose), Fruit
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(dried or fresh), Fruit Juices (can be concentrate, but no
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preservatives: Sorbate is often mentioned in small print even in "100%
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juice"), Molasses, Maple syrup, Acid blend, Citric acid (Vitamin C, you
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can use lemon or orange juice), Tannin (can be purchased), Yeast
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Nutrient (you can boil yeast from previous batch for this, but
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commercial nutrients work best), Spices (cinnamon, cloves, ginger,
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etc), Pectic Enzyme (needed for fresh fruit pulp, as some fruit juices
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(pear and apple notably) require this to clear).
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G06. BTW, CAN I USE JAM?
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In principle, you could. Recipes you may come across for jam wines
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may call for pectin-free jams -- something rather rare unless you make
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the jam yourself and don't use pectin. Fruit jams naturally will
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contain pectin from the fruit anyway. Further, the jam need not be
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pectin-free to work -- that's what pectic enzyme is used for.
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The big questions is, though, WHY? If you make the jam yourself, why
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not just make the wine directly? If it's old jam, it's probably
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oxidized and not appropriate for winemaking (and if opened, probably
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contaminated, too.) It would take about twice as much pectic enzyme to
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break down the extra pectin added to the jam.
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Expect fair wine only from this method.
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G07. THE RECIPE CALLS FOR TANNIN. WHAT'S THE CONVERSION DRY TO LIQUID?
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The conversion is 1/4 teaspoon dry tannin equals 0.338140227 fluid
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ounces. This is about half a gram dry tannin to 10 millilitres liquid.
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G08. WHAT EQUIPMENT IS REQUIRED
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Standard Kit (all necessary):
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- 6.5 imperial gallon bucket (7.74 USG; 29.25 litres)
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- 5 imperial gallon carboy (6 USG; 23 litres)
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- plastic spoon
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- airlock & bung
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- sheet of plastic
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- sulphite
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- hydrometer
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- J-tube and plastic tubing
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- J-tube holder for carboy
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- basic instructions
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- You should also get a 20 litre (5 USG) food grade plastic jug to
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carry distilled water if you make kits. It may also be used to carry
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your juice if you purchase it straight from a market press.
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- If you are using fruit and preparing it at home, you may require a
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fruit press.
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- One 1-gallon (4 litre) glass jug to hold your sulphite solution
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- Bottle sanitizer -- used for sanitizing bottles, is pump activated, as
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in by hand (put the bottle over the nozzle, and push down.)
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- optional if you use the dishwasher and the water is HOT! (65 C or
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HOTTER!) (use sanitizing cycle)
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Needed sooner or later (especially if you make a lot of wine), but optional:
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- Wine filter set AND glass carboy
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- These can often be rented -- don't buy it until a) You're really
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hooked on wine making (~3 batches) and b) You find you make a lot of
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wine and would save by purchasing the system.
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- Floor corker (often can be rented)
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Optional, but very strongly recommended:
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- Jet spray water bottle washer AND tap adapter -- better than a brush
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- J-tube holder for carboys -- makes it easier to siphon off the wine
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by making things less awkward and keeping your hands from tiring (may
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come with the set)
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Optional, but very useful:
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- Large plastic box(es) for storage of your equipment.
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- Hand held bottle corker. It's mainly useful if you make small
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bottles or little wine. It is a pain in the wrist to use for large
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scale bottling.
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- Several extra airlocks and bungs, and extra gallon jugs to take up
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the wine that the carboy won't take.
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G09. SUCROSE VS. CORN SUGAR
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For those of you with really distinguishing palates, sucrose (table
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sugar) will give a beverage a fruity character; corn sugar, a malty
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character. Both will nonetheless ferment well in your wine.
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3/4 unit of sucrose equals 1 unit of corn sugar; therefore if your
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recipe calls for 1 lb of sugar, you should use 1 1/3 lbs corn sugar.
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G10. KITS VS. GRAPES OR FRUIT
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{Do you have any preferences on wine kits, or should I make wine from
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grapes or fruit?}
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Kits vary in quality, usually according to price: The more expensive
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it is, the better the quality.
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When buying a kit, don't buy a cheap one just to minimize your
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financial risk. Cheap wine kits might resemble watery grape juice with
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fire in them. An expensive kit uses the same principles, but the
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product is usually far superior. Experiment; often, paying a premium
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pays off. Look for a kit that has a lot of concentrate. The ideal
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would be a concentrate that has 16 litres (3.5 imp. gal.; 4.25 USG) of
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concentrate. The next best would be about 10 kg (22 lbs).
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Some people swear by kits, while others by fresh juice. As a steady
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rule, high quality wine that lasts for decades is made from high
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quality fresh juice from fruit that was grown and picked under optimum
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conditions.
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That being said, there are good kits out that are of great quality that
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can beat out fresh juice wines, but again, usually only the more
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expensive kits.
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Experiment and decide for yourself what you want. What YOU like as a
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final product is the most important factor, as well as the commitment
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you wish to make.
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G11. WHAT ARE THE USUAL SIZES USED IN HOME WINEMAKING?
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It should be noted that the US and Britain use the Imperial system
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(though Britain also uses the metric system), but the measurements of
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each system do not necessarily correspond to those of the other. The
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rest of the world uses the Metric system.
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Some information found here was found in Alan Marshall's FAQ on sizes,
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which can be found at:
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ftp.stanford.edu in /pub/clubs/homebrew/beer/rfdb/beer-capacity.faq
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Bottle: 750 mL, 1/5 USG, 1/6 imp. gal.
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Barrel: 36 imp. gal. (UK barrel), 31 USG (US barrel)
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Carboy: 5 imp. gal., 6.5 USG
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Demijohn: 25 to 64 litres, 5.6 to 14.2 imp. gal, 6.6 to 16.9 USG
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Gallon (imperial): 4.5 Litres (abbreviated imp. gal.)
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Gallon (US): 3.78 Litres (abbreviated USG)
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Magnum: 1.5 litres, 2/5 USG, 1/3 imp. gal.
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The usual primary fermentor used by home winemakers holds 6.5 imp. gal.
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(7.74 USG; 29.25 litres) and the secondary fermentor is a carboy.
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However, there are various other sizes, such as 5 USG, as well as
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various other sizes that are convenient to the individual.
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Bottles:
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Volume Name
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375ml fillette
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750ml bottle
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1500ml magnum
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2250ml tappit
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3000ml double magnum
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4500ml jeroboam
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6000ml imperial
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G12. BARRELS
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Why bother with a barrel?
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Oak adds a compelling complexity to wine. You should make sure the
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kind of wine you want to make is well suited for oak, since it is more
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expensive and trouble. For example, just about any high tannin red
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wine will benefit. Many whites such as chardonnay or sauvignon blanc
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will also. However, riesling should be left alone. Oak barrels also
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have an aesthetic quality that other materials can't match.
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New and Used Barrels
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Look in a commercial listings phone book for oak barrels, barrel
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coopers, wine suppliers or the like. Check a wine trade flyer or
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magazine. You can also contact a winery and ask for their source or
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ask to purchase one of their used barrels.
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A trade advertising flyer may carry advertisements for used barrels.
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Often famous wineries will advertise in them. These are generally for
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full sized barrels. One may assume that it is the responsibility of
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the buyer to pick up used barrels. Purchase only from a reputable
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source. Some people have had bad experiences with used barrels; if you
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purchase one, "Caveat Emptor -- Buyer Beware".
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Oak barrels are generally good for two or three years as a source of
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oak in and of itself. At that point, you can either keep it as a
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neutral barrel, or you can have a cooperage take it apart, scrape it
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down to fresh wood, and re-toast the barrel, at which point it's good
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for some more.
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Barrel Care
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Usually empty unused barrels can be stored indefinitely. Once filled
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with wine, the barrels must either be always full or specially treated
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when emptied. The recipe for storing solution (for a 40 imp.gal; 50-60
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USG) is about 454g (1 lb) citric acid crystals, 454g (1 lb) sodium or
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potassium metabisulphite and enough water to fill the barrel. Then
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bung it tight.
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A new barrel should be filled with water for a week or so before
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filling with wine as a new barrel will often leak. For leaks there are
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three things to do. First, wait a few days. Swelling will stop a lot
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of between stave leaks. Second, if it still leaks between staves, then
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you'll need to pound the hoops towards the middle of the barrel to
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tighten up the pressure. Third, if your leak is from a defect in the
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wood such as a small hole, you can whittle a small plug out of a piece
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of oak and jam it into the hole.
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Bleach and other cleaners not specifically labelled for wood barrel
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cleaning shouldn't be used to clean your barrel as it could remain in
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the wood and affect the wine you put in it. If the barrel is dirty,
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then scrub it with water. One trick to clean a barrel is to drop a
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length of chain inside and shake the barrel around.
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Don't reuse a barrel in which wine has turned to vinegar; it's
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impossible to get rid of the vinegar bacteria from the wood. Use the
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barrel as a planter in your yard.
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It's generally not a good idea to mix wine types in a barrel, or white
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and red wine. You'll taste the previous wine in the subsequent wine.
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Barrels need regular topping off with wine to keep them full. Since a
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barrel is porous, wine evaporates through the wood. Once a week for
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topping off works fine; some wineries top off twice a week. Keeping
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the humidity up in your winery cuts evaporative loss. Losing half a
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litre a month is normal.
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The bung stave, the one with the hole in it, often cracks just at the
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hole as this is the weakest part of the barrel. Either replace the
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stave or seal the crack with melted wax.
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Wipe the area around the bung hole often with a sulphite solution.
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This is the area that gets seepage and spills, and the sulphite keeps
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this area from being a source of spoilage.
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Five gallon barrels are discouraged because of the high surface to
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volume ratio. The wine can get too oaky relatively quickly. When
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using a five gallon barrel, keep the wine in for a shorter period of
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time, then blend it with wine from the same vintage that was not in
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barrel. It seems to work fine. The key is to not let it sit too long.
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Toasting Level in Barrels
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The level of toasting appropriate to a wine would be based on what kind
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of oak taste you want to impart on your wine. Most reds can take higher
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toast levels than whites. If you plan on using the barrel for whites, a
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light toast level is appropriate for lighter, earlier maturing whites
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and maybe medium toast for any fuller body whites to which you wish to
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impart a bolder toasted taste. If you have a lighter bodied or
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flavoured red wine, you should go with a lighter toast level to avoid
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the toasting overwhelming the other flavours of the wine. The majority
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of reds would fall into the medium toast range. Heavily toasted barrels
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are rare. It is suggested that you try talking to someone from where
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you are purchasing the barrel who is knowledgable about the different
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toast levels and can steer you in the right direction.
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G13. SANITATION
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Yeast is tough and tends to beat out most competitors because of its
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ability to live in an alcohol solution, while bacteria and fungi tend
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to die even at low alcoholic percentages (though some can live almost
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as well.) It also survives well because of its rapid reproduction rate
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as compared to other microorganisms. However, survival isn't
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everything, since even a small infection can spoil the odour and
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flavour of your wine. You're unlikely to get sick from these
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infections, since anything bad will almost always SMELL bad too, and
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taste worse. To avoid this, keep everything that comes in contact with
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your wine very clean. This is especially critical when cleaning the
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fermenting vessel. You don't need to sterilize, as it is impossible to
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keep things sterile anyway. A solution of bleach water (one capful per
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gallon) will kill almost anything. You'll need to be very sure all the
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bleach gets rinsed off since yeast will have trouble living in the
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presence of chlorine and even the tiniest amount of bleach can produce
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awful flavours and odours when it reacts with other things in your
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must.
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If a fermenter has just been in use and you're rinsing it out to put
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more wine in immediately, scalding hot water out of the tap will do
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nicely, no need to use bleach. Note: You SHOULD bleach if this last
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batch had vinegar in it.
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G14. PROCEDURE
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Prepare the yeast. You can either start from a package of yeast or
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the leftover yeast from a previous batch. If you're using a package of
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yeast, it can just be thrown in the must, but it works better if you
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rehydrate it in a (sanitized) glass of water, covered with a plate or
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plastic wrap. You can also give it something to do by tossing in a
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spoon of sugar or by substituting some fruit juice for water, but this
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is not necessary. Re-hydrating only takes about 15 minutes.
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Prepare your must. Crush your fruit and, where appropriate, add water,
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sugar and other ingredients. An easy way of preparing non-grape fruit
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is to put them through a food processor or blender.
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Must sanitation. There are different schools of thought on how must
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sanitation should be done: Some people boil their must, others use
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Campden tablets (2 per gallon), others freeze their fruit (which helps
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to extract juice and flavours better, and is usually done in
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conjunction with a dose of sulphite), others pasteurize (raising the
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must temperature to a given temperature for a period of time), and
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others don't sanitize at all, but rather allow the wild yeasts to
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ferment the must. Boiling helps to fend off infections and blend
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ingredients, but can change the character of whatever you're preparing
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and caramelize some sugars, producing less desirable results, sweet
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wine, or both. Often it is sufficient to pour boiling water over
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pieces of fruit to get wild yeast and bacteria off the surface of the
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fruit and makes the fruit easier to crush and extract juices.
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Most fruit juices, especially apple and grape, will ferment out to 7%
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or 8%, possibly up to 11%. Adding sugar or honey will make a more
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potent wine or cider.
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Mix juices, tannins, acids, nutrients in fermenting vessel.
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Add the yeast, and let it ferment the must. This can take anywhere
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from 2-3 weeks for a kit to several months with some fruit.
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Clear the wine. Some people rack the wine from one vessel to another
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every three months after fermentation is complete until clear; others
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use a fining agent such as bentonite, gelatin or isinglas. Most people
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fine and filter their wine before bottling to give the wine a final
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polish.
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Aging. Quality improves a lot with age. It is usually best to wait at
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least a month on anything, and the longer you wait, the better it will
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be. Most references say wait at least six months or a year but many
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wines can be drinkable earlier. Keep the bottles in a cool place out
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of direct sunlight. Wines age better if not jarred or disturbed. Kit
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wines tend to be best at a year.
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To determine the optimum aging time required for a wine, make a lot of
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small bottles and open one up every three months or so and taste it.
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G15. Why am I adding the bentonite at the beginning?
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{As I understand it, bentonite is a clearing agent. However, in the
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instructions for my kit it says to add the bentonite at the same time
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as the yeast. Why?}
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It helps to get rid of a lot of stuff (including millions of dead yeast
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cells) during the primary fermentation by having it all fall out before
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clearing ever starts. Doing so optimizes the actual clearing process
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by taking care of a lot of it before you even try. It also helps avoid
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foul smells from decomposing yeast -- a potential problem when your
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wine is in the carboy for several weeks or even months -- when you
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transfer the wine into the secondary by having them all fall out to the
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bottom in the primary, therefore avoiding their transfer.
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G16. EGG WHITE CLEARING
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{How is egg white clearing accomplished? Are the egg whites raw? How
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does one go about fining with egg white? Any problem with salmonella?}
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The egg whites are raw. Add about 2 whites per barrel, with a pinch
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of salt; mix the whole thing to get the salt mixed in -- the salt helps
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solubilize some proteins in the whites that aren't water soluble.
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Don't whip the whites, though, or it'll just float on the top like a
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meringue and require counterfining. Salmonella is a good question,
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although it likely can't stand the environment of wine for too long
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(ethanol and low pH).
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If you're doing very small batches, you don't need to add much at all.
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You really don't want to add too much. This method should only be used
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for red wines.
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G17. HIGHER ALCOHOL LEVELS
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If you wish to increase your alcohol content, such as for ports,
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sherries and the like, try syrup feeding. Prepare your must like a
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regular wine (but keep your initial sg below 1.095) and ferment using a
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high alcohol tolerant yeast. Rack to secondary as usual at 1.010.
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When the sg is at 1.000, bring it up to 1.010 with a 2 to 1 sugar to
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water syrup. This can be done several times, but production will
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usually stop at roughly 18%. Don't worry about excess sweetness if
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you're careful as higher alcohol levels tend to mask sweetness, and in
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order to get the same apparent sweetness as a wine with a given lower
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alcohol level, you need more residual sugar. If you put in too much
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sugar, A) deal with a slightly sweet wine and B) experiment to see what
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works best for you in the future.
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According to "The Lore of Still Building" by Kathleen Howard and Norman
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Gibat, you can accomplish concentrate the alcohol (and everything in the
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wine as well) by putting the wine in a freezer until it turns mushy. It
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can then be poured or ladled into a large strainer cloth and squeezed
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dry. The liquid squeezed out will be higher in alcololic content than
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the residue in the strainer cloth. This method should yield a fortified
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wine (20% to 30% alcohol) from ordinary wines. Unfortunately, the book
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does not give a good indication of freezer temperature or how long the
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wine should be frozen.
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Please note that this is effectively the same as distillation and can
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be quite dangerous with regards to methanol concentration.
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G18. SPARKLING YOUR WINE
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Champagne can be made by several methods:
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Traditional method:
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For 20 litres:
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Wine should be fermented to 10% alcohol. When still and clear, but
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without any sorbate or further sulphite added, add 1 cup sugar and
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champagne yeast to the wine. A couple hours later, bottle wine in
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champagne bottles with crown caps. Let bottle rest on its side for 1
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month.
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When disgorging and corking, 12oz (360ml) of this wine is to be added
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to 8oz (240 ml) of vodka or brandy (preffered) and 12oz (360ml), wine
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conditioner and 1/2 tsp sulphite crystals. This is the "dosage".
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Over a period of 6 weeks after the initial 1 month period, gradually
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shift bottle angle from near horizontal to near vertical (neck down)
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using planks with holes large enough to place the necks in. Then chill
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the wine to about -1C (30F) without disturbing the sediment (this can
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be done in a large bucket of ice or outside in the winter.) Place
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several alternating layers of crushed ice and salt in a bucket and
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place the necks down in the ice. When the sediment has frozen,
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carefully point the bottle in a safe direction (such as into your
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primary) and uncork. The sediment should come out cleanly.
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After the wine is disgorged, the "dosage" is added to the sparkling
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wine. The wine is recorked.
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Articicial carbonation:
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WARNING: This method can be dangerous. IF YOU AREN'T SURE, ASK YOUR
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DEALER FOR HELP!
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Artificial carbonation avoids the nuisance of sediment. The only
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problem is that it is comparatively a pain in the a$$. You will need
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to rent the carbonation setup from a local store. You will have to
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place your wine in the freezer until it is 0C. You will have to charge
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the tank with CO2, shake, charge, shake, charge, shake. Then each
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bottle has to be filled under pressure. Estimates for 23L are in the
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|
2-3 hour range not including chilling time, the extra two trips to the
|
|
store, extra time cleaning, and so forth.
|
|
|
|
When you look at natural carbonation, there is no need to sterilize
|
|
your solution (less chemicals in your product), it takes two minutes
|
|
extra to add the 1.5 cup sugar, and the bubbles in your wine will be
|
|
finer, longer lasting, and they will thread like champagne. So what if
|
|
you lose an ounce of wine on the bottom of the bottle? Even so, yeast
|
|
sediment is good for you!
|
|
|
|
Note:
|
|
|
|
Make sure that you use bottles that are designed to be under pressure
|
|
(such as soda bottles or champagne bottles) and that if you're using a
|
|
cork that it's secured to the bottle with a wire. Alternatively you
|
|
can use large beer bottles or other bottles that can use crown caps.
|
|
|
|
G19. ICE WINE
|
|
|
|
{Has anyone had any experience in fudging ice wine?}
|
|
|
|
Icewine is basically a very sweet desert wine where the grapejuice has
|
|
been naturally concentrated by partially freezing the grapes and
|
|
pressing, so that the ice will remain with the skins and stems etc.,
|
|
resulting in a very concentrated juice.
|
|
|
|
Home winemakers can produce wonderful icewine style of wines using
|
|
concentrates. The only difference is that the juice was concentrated in
|
|
a factory, vs the natural way.
|
|
|
|
Several suggestions follow:
|
|
|
|
In western Canada the Brew Crew and its affiliated stores carry an
|
|
icewine kit which is made by R.J. Grape products. One kit makes
|
|
11.5 liters, and it cost approximately $70 Can.
|
|
|
|
Alternatively you can use a regular kit and only bring it up to 11.5
|
|
litres instead of 23.
|
|
|
|
Start with a base wine (fresh juice or concentrate). Adjust the acid
|
|
level. Adjust the brix by adding honey and concentrate (usually 3 parts
|
|
concentrate to 1 part honey) to the desired alcohol yield. Ferment
|
|
until dry. Stabilize the wine, by using sulphite, sorbate, and filter.
|
|
After stabilization, add concentrate & honey to raise the specific
|
|
gravity to about 1.050 (THIS IS NOT A TYPO). At this point proceed with
|
|
normal winemaking techniques (fining, cold conditioning, and it MUST be
|
|
filtered).
|
|
|
|
This method allows you to be very creative. For example you can start
|
|
with a riesling as a base, and add a gewurtztraminer concentrate or
|
|
several different concentrates, even a small amount of red wine
|
|
concentrate. It is possible to create a truly unique & complex
|
|
"icewine" type desert wine using this blending method. Note: you can
|
|
also use this method in regular winemaking as well.
|
|
|
|
Another suggestion is to use a readily available super concentrated form
|
|
of grapes: RAISINS. Take 1 pound of raisins, and 1 pound of seedless
|
|
dates, put them in the blender with some juice, blend it until it's a
|
|
mush and add it to the primary. After fermentation is complete and
|
|
the wine is stabilized, add 1/2 pound of raisins and the same amount of
|
|
dates, prepared in the blender (at this point extraction of the sugar
|
|
and flavour is the goal). Use additional concentrate to raise the
|
|
specific gravity to 1.050, and proceed as usual.
|
|
|
|
The owner of a brew-on-premises shop combines a 15 litre juice kit and
|
|
a 3kg to 5kg concentrate kit instead of water to bring the batch to 23
|
|
litres.
|
|
|
|
In order to make it the traditional way, the grapes must be left on the
|
|
vine late in the season until they are partly frozen, usually when the
|
|
temperature has reached -7C (19F), and then quickly harvested and
|
|
pressed to get only the concentrated juice in the centre of the grape,
|
|
while avoiding allowing the ice crystals to melt and/or directly join
|
|
the must. Alternatively, you can partially freeze your grapes in your
|
|
freezer. Ferment the juice as you would a regular wine.
|
|
|
|
It is important to keep an eye on the acid levels, especially when
|
|
using the concentrate feeding method, as concentrates are already acid balanced for 23 litres.
|
|
|
|
G20. DIFFERENT KINDS OF FERMENTATION USED IN WINEMAKING
|
|
|
|
Red wine fermentation: the trick with red wine grapes is to hit a peak
|
|
temperature near 32C (90F) for at least a short time to optimize colour
|
|
extraction.
|
|
|
|
Pros naturally achieve temperature -- the large fermenters they use
|
|
don't allow the heat of fermentation to escape easily. Some go to
|
|
lengths to try to prevent overheating! With our small tubs, we
|
|
amateurs must resort to trickery. The best heating system is a
|
|
"brewbelt" which should be available from a local brewing supply store.
|
|
A simple trick is to wrap an electric blanket around the fermenter. A
|
|
submersible thermometer will tell you when you've got the right
|
|
thermostat setting. Other heat sources are: aquarium heaters (clean
|
|
well!), space heaters, and waterbed heaters.
|
|
|
|
A good fermentation regimen is to hold the crushed/stemmed must at 40F
|
|
for 5 days, innoculate and warm to 32C (90F) for a day, then drop the
|
|
temperature down into the 15C to 26C (60F to 80F) range for a long
|
|
fermentation, pressing a couple days after cap fall.
|
|
|
|
Cold fermentation: Some white wines benefit from a cooler
|
|
fermentation, producing a clean, fruity wine that many consumers love.
|
|
|
|
Again, cooler fermentations are difficult for amateurs, and we must
|
|
resort to trickery. An old fridge run warm (about 10C (50F)) is
|
|
perfect for a carboy at a time. Icebags suspended in must or placed in
|
|
a tub in which a fermentation vessel sits can be effective. You can
|
|
place carboys in tubs of water on the basement floor if it's cool. The
|
|
water draws warmth from the carboy to the floor. A good target
|
|
temperature for white wines is 10C to 13C (50F to 55F).
|
|
|
|
Barrel fermentation: It's not hard once you get past the expense of
|
|
the barrel. Press the grapes in the usual fashion, settle the juice
|
|
overnight. Rack the juice into the barrel (previously swelled to
|
|
prevent leaks) to about 80% full. Inoculate with yeast, jam an airlock
|
|
in the bunghole and wait. After about 2 to 3 weeks, when vigorous
|
|
action has slowed, top the barrel off and keep it topped. Leave it in
|
|
the barrel for anywhere from 3 weeks to a year, depending on many
|
|
factors (age of oak, desired amount of oak flavour, etc.)
|
|
|
|
Malolactic fermentation: MLF, as it is abbreviated, is a bacterial
|
|
fermentation where sharp malic acid in wine is converted by bacteria to
|
|
mellower lactic acid. MLF is usually good, especially for high acid
|
|
Chardonnays. Pinot Noir, which has a high natural malic acid content,
|
|
almost always undergoes MLF and benefits from it. The MLF bacteria
|
|
comes in with the grapes sometimes, can be present in your facility and
|
|
equipment and is available for purchase at most wine supply shops.
|
|
|
|
If you want MLF to happen, keep sulphite down. MLF is sensitive to
|
|
sulphite, low pH's (especially below 3.0), and cool temperatures (below
|
|
15C (60F)). So, inoculate early -- many do it soon after yeast
|
|
fermentation has started (the must is warm and has little sulphite).
|
|
If your pH is very low, the wine can be partly neutralized to raise the
|
|
pH. Be careful at this point as adding too much chalk can add a chalky
|
|
taste to the wine. Refer to section G21. ACID BALANCE. MLF survives
|
|
very well in barrels, so if you are putting your Pinot in a barrel that
|
|
has held a wine that has undergone MLF, it will take off on its own.
|
|
This has historically been a common occurence in the spring following
|
|
harvest.
|
|
|
|
The lees in the barrel or carboy harbour the bacteria, so leaving wine
|
|
on the lees until late spring can give MLF encouragement. Some wines,
|
|
like Riesling, don't like MLF. A moderate sulphite dose almost always
|
|
provides adequate protection against it and all the other bacterial
|
|
fermentations.
|
|
|
|
You can tell that MLF is happening in 3 ways. One is to use
|
|
chromatography to measure relative malic and lactic acid levels.
|
|
Another is to notice the onset of renewed CO2 action (bubbles) well
|
|
after the yeast fermentation is done. Another is to taste the change
|
|
in the wine from more sharp to more mellow and buttery.
|
|
|
|
Lee Stirring
|
|
|
|
When this is done this in a winery, it's usually in conjuction with
|
|
barrel fermentation. Hence, the primary lees are the ones that are
|
|
stirred. Having said this, it should be pointed out that the juice has
|
|
been racked once before inoculation so the solids are in the less than
|
|
2% range in the juice at inoculation.
|
|
|
|
Stirring frequency is up to the winemaker but even no stirring will
|
|
result in what is described as a greater mouthfeel. This can lead to a
|
|
sense of richness, softness and definitely better integration of oak,
|
|
malolactic character and fruit. Many wineries start off stirring
|
|
weekly (originally the stirring was done to encourage malolactic
|
|
fermentation) and then gradually tapering to once every two weeks to
|
|
once a month with usually the end being at 6-9 months depending on
|
|
taste. And that's the most important indicator. Sometimes, there can
|
|
be a sulphide problem, so you have to taste the wine throughout the
|
|
process. If you push the wine through MLF you shouldn't have a
|
|
bacterial problem. Also, once MLF is complete you should add some
|
|
sulphite to avoid bacterial spoilage.
|
|
|
|
G21. ACID BALANCE
|
|
|
|
Finished wines usually should have the following acid levels (expressed
|
|
as tartaric acid):
|
|
|
|
Fruit wines 0.60% 6.0g/L
|
|
Red grape wines 0.65% 6.5g/L
|
|
White grape wines 0.75% 7.5g/L
|
|
Sherry types 0.50% 5.0g/L
|
|
|
|
1 ounce of acid blend will raise 5 imp. gal. by 0.13%. 1/4 ounce
|
|
calcium carbonate chalk or 1/3 ounce potassium carbonate chalk per
|
|
gallon will lower acid by 0.15%. Maximum recommended chalk is 0.5
|
|
ounce calcium chalk per gallon to avoid a faint chalky taste.
|
|
Potassium bicarbonate produces better results with less taste then
|
|
calcium carbonate, and will work better with cold stabilization.
|
|
|
|
If your wine is really high in acid (VERY low pH), add some water.
|
|
|
|
G22. CHILLPROOFING
|
|
|
|
Tartaric acid crystals may fall out of solution to form a white,
|
|
crystalline sediment after a while, particularly if your wine gets
|
|
chilled. They're harmless and do not add any taste to the wine. To
|
|
avoid the problem, chillproof your wine for a couple of weeks in the
|
|
carboy in a cool to cold place -- an old fridge or a cold cold room is
|
|
appropriate. Desired temperature is 4C (36F).
|
|
|
|
G23. DO ALL WINES CONTAIN SULPHITES?
|
|
|
|
All wines do contain sulphur compounds, and almost invariably sulphur
|
|
dioxide, a common additive preservative. Yeast produce sulphur
|
|
compounds as a byproduct of metabolism. The level they produce is
|
|
usually enough to require the "contains sulphites" addition to labels.
|
|
Yeast typically produce around 10 ppm (10mg/L) but may produce more.
|
|
It is thought not to be harmful unless one is very allergic to sulphur
|
|
compounds. There are varying degrees of sulphite sensitivity, ranging
|
|
from sinus inflammation to, in extreme cases, respiratory failure.
|
|
Many winemakers, both commercially and at home, are trying to reduce
|
|
sulphite levels.
|
|
|
|
Sulphite is often added to the wine as a microbiological and oxidative
|
|
inhibitor in wines, the amount wildly ranging depending on the
|
|
producer. Often the value may as well be related to the colour of
|
|
their eyes or their height. :)
|
|
|
|
G24. HOW MUCH SULPHITE IS NEEDED?
|
|
|
|
Neither SO2 nor sorbate kills yeasts; they inhibit them, and can
|
|
prevent microbial activity, but only if the cell counts are low. If
|
|
you have a mounting problem, they won't do a good job in controlling
|
|
it. The amount of sulphite needed depends on the pH of the wine -- the
|
|
lower the pH the less you need (at pH 3.2, you need 21ppm (21mg/L) free
|
|
SO2; at pH 3.5, you need 50ppm (50mg/L) free SO2.) This has to do with
|
|
A) the fact that the active form that inhibits bacteria forms better at
|
|
lower pH's and B) the lower the pH, the better the acidity in the wine
|
|
is in itself able to protect the wine. The following is the pH
|
|
dependant equilibrium for those of us who actually understand it. The
|
|
forms depicted in the left are favoured by higher pH's; the right by
|
|
lower pH's.
|
|
|
|
SO2 + H2O <---> HSO3- + H+ <---> SO3-- + H+
|
|
|
|
1 ppm = 1 mg/L, therefore for 5 gallons of wine with a pH of 3.2, you
|
|
need:
|
|
|
|
5gal*4.5L/gal = 22.5L
|
|
|
|
21mg/L*22.5L = 472.5mg
|
|
|
|
Since this is free SO2, we need a conversion for potassium and sodium
|
|
metabisulphate, (K2S205 and Na2S205 respectively) which are 3.47 and
|
|
2.97 respectively. So we need 1.6g or 1.4g of each respectively -- a
|
|
little under a quarter of a teaspoon. Through the same process you
|
|
need half a teaspoon for a wine with pH 3.5. One campden tablet is
|
|
0.55 grams, or about 1/12 of a teaspoon.
|
|
|
|
It's always important to remember that both of these products work
|
|
better with low pH's, so a non-standard wine (i.e. fruit wine) may
|
|
require really large amounts due to high pH.
|
|
|
|
There is unfortunately no handy way to actually kill yeast in your wine
|
|
at home.
|
|
|
|
G25. TOPPING UP YOUR WINE
|
|
|
|
Topping up your wine is the process of making your carboy as full of
|
|
wine as possible to make sure that there is as small a contact with air
|
|
as possible, therefore minimizing oxidation risks.
|
|
|
|
Some suggestions follow:
|
|
|
|
A) Make more than five gallons, particularly if you're using fresh
|
|
fruit; when racking, squeeze the berries to get the liquid out to
|
|
maximize wine volume to begin with. Keep the extra wine in the fridge
|
|
until needed.
|
|
B) Add water. This can change the sweetness and acid of your wine.
|
|
C) Add a honey/water mixture
|
|
D) Top off with some commercial wine of the same type as you're making.
|
|
This will keep the taste from being watered down
|
|
E) Use an inert gas such as CO2. This can be gotten from a supplier,
|
|
or if you have access to it, use dry ice. Some suppliers also have
|
|
cans of inert gas used to top up bottles of wine.
|
|
F) Added clean marbles or aquarium gravel to reduce the amount of room
|
|
in the carboy so the wine is closer to the neck.
|
|
|
|
When you do rack and you introduce something to your wine to top it up,
|
|
add some sulfite. Sulfite also helps reduce oxidation and will help
|
|
kill any bacteria introduced when racking.
|
|
|
|
G26. HOW TO KNOW WHEN A WINE IS READY TO DRINK
|
|
|
|
By no means is the following meant to be complete or authoritative;
|
|
however, it does contain some means of determining maturity. If you
|
|
know any more, please let the editor (malak@cam.org) or r.c.w. know.
|
|
|
|
The first thing to remember is that wine-tasting (and therefore when a
|
|
wine is "ready") is a subjective exercise and your favourite wine is
|
|
someone else's least favourite some of the time. Everyone has a
|
|
different palate. Some like oak, some acid, some fragrance, some
|
|
body.
|
|
Kit wines tend to peak at 1 year. Check that the acid balance and
|
|
tannin level are high enough if you want it to last longer. Many other
|
|
fruit wines peak at 3 to 5 years. Most fine wines that take time will
|
|
still usually peak long before 25 years unless tannins, acids and fruit
|
|
flavours are unusually concentrated.
|
|
|
|
Two of the easiest ways of assessing a wine's maturity are tasting the
|
|
wine at intervals and holding a bottle up to the light to assess the
|
|
wine's colour. Assessing the wine by tasting is your responsibility;
|
|
however, acidity and astringency (the latter from tannins) will
|
|
gradually diminish with age, while fruitiness will typically diminish
|
|
and give way to more subtle and developed aromas with age, so look for
|
|
smoothness and complexity. But watch out! After a certain time, the
|
|
wine can actually get tired and move past its peak. Watch out for
|
|
wines that have a tired, thin, flabby taste. A practical way to taste
|
|
over time is to make a lot of small bottles.
|
|
|
|
You should also be careful: In the reductive environment of the
|
|
bottle, many wines develop hydrogen sulfide smells, and if it smells
|
|
bad initially, swirl the wine around in a glass. Decanting can help,
|
|
but it's tricky because you can overdo it with a delicately-balanced
|
|
wine.
|
|
|
|
You should also be inspecting the corks for A) leakage B) rot, and C)
|
|
dryness. Outside development of mould is not bad, but escape of some
|
|
wine through the cork is bad.
|
|
|
|
As for colour, with age, red wine goes from a deep red or even purple
|
|
to lighter shades of red. Typical descriptors for an aged red are
|
|
"brick," and "orange." White wine goes from a pale straw colour to
|
|
amber.
|
|
|
|
Also, when examining the bottles in the light, check for clarity --
|
|
haziness can indicate A) protein haze B) metals casse (haze) C)
|
|
microbiological activity, or D) pectin haze. The worst of these is, of
|
|
course, microbiological activity. You should also check the ullage
|
|
(fill level) -- if that has decreased, it could indicate excessive
|
|
evaporation or leakage, which could oxidatively deteriorate the wine or
|
|
indicate the possibility of microbial incursion.
|
|
|
|
Now for some tips on wine tasting, which might help you determine what
|
|
you like, and therefore impact how you make and age your wine. Deciding
|
|
what was liked about his wines was what caused the editor (and no doubt
|
|
others) to determine how he went about making his wines.
|
|
|
|
Don't mix sweet wines with dry wines unless you drink the sweet wines
|
|
last.
|
|
|
|
Taste the wines twice or even three times and rescore them. They change
|
|
flavour on exposure to air or if they warm up.
|
|
|
|
Drink white wines cool; let red wines air out.
|
|
|
|
Find out what styles you personally like and what your friends like and
|
|
why.
|
|
|
|
See if you can find wines that everyone likes. These are the hardest to
|
|
make and usually the best buys.
|
|
|
|
Try to agree on flawed the cause of wines' mousy smell (bad filtration,
|
|
mould or bad corks), oxidation etc. The main thing is to not be too
|
|
serious and not to talk too much while you're tasting e.g. "Oh...this is
|
|
just great!!!" Save comments till later and don't force your tastebuds
|
|
on your neighbour.
|
|
|
|
Have lots of chlorine free water and bits of bread or unsalted crackers
|
|
to clean your moutn between wines.
|
|
|
|
Brown bag the bottles until everyone has tasted. This is a lot of fun
|
|
and removes a lot of personal bias which has nothing to do with tasting.
|
|
|
|
G27. VINOMETERS
|
|
|
|
{Could someone tell me the principle of how a vinometer works?}
|
|
|
|
Water's structure causes it to have a very high surface tension and
|
|
exhibit marked capillary action. In other words if you stick a narrow
|
|
tube in the water the water is pulled up the column.
|
|
|
|
The more alcohol present the more the capillary action is affected thus
|
|
the height of the column changes. Add graduations based on standard
|
|
solutions of water and alcohol and you have a reasonably accurate
|
|
method of determining the concentration of a water alcohol solution.
|
|
|
|
Problem is that wine has lots of other things that can affect capillary
|
|
action and surface tension. The most prominent of these are residual
|
|
sugars. That's why the instructions that come with the device probably
|
|
say to only use it on dry wines (wines with minimal residual sugar).
|
|
|
|
G28. HOW TO MEASURE ALCOHOL LEVELS IN YOUR WINE
|
|
|
|
To calculate Alcohol by Volume: Subtract the last reading from the
|
|
initial gravity and divide the result by 0.0074 this gives the
|
|
approximate alcohol content in %.
|
|
|
|
Ex.:
|
|
S.G. = 1.070 F.G. = 0.995
|
|
1.070 - 0.995 = 0.075
|
|
0.075 / 0.0074 = 10.15%
|
|
|
|
It does not matter what the first or last reading is, both mean little
|
|
alone. The difference between the two does!
|
|
|
|
Usually there is also an alcohol scale marked directly on a hydrometer;
|
|
subtract initial potential alcohol reading from final, and the
|
|
difference is the approximate alcohol content.
|
|
|
|
Another method is the boiling method:
|
|
|
|
- take 250 ml of wine
|
|
- measure specific weight and temperature
|
|
- boil the wine down to half of its volume
|
|
- get the same volume of liquid by adding boiled water
|
|
- cool to the same temperature as above
|
|
- measure specific weight
|
|
- the difference between the two is related to the alcohol level; use
|
|
the following table:
|
|
|
|
diff. alcohol
|
|
s/w volume %
|
|
8 5,63
|
|
9 6,40
|
|
10 7,18
|
|
11 7.98
|
|
12 8,80
|
|
14 10,51
|
|
16 12,30
|
|
18 14,10
|
|
20 16,00
|
|
22 18,00
|
|
|
|
spec. weight is in gram/litre
|
|
|
|
G29. WHAT'S THE BEST PAPER AND ADHESIVE TO USE FOR LABELS?
|
|
|
|
Paper:
|
|
|
|
Any paper will do -- printer paper, copy paper, whatever. Envelope
|
|
labels are more difficult to take off.
|
|
|
|
Inkjet printouts may run if exposed to the slightest moisture; try
|
|
photocopying.
|
|
|
|
Adhesives:
|
|
|
|
Typically, you should use a water soluble adhesive that is easy to
|
|
apply and allows for quick, easy removal of labels.
|
|
|
|
Milk: Use a small brush and lightly coat the back of the label, then
|
|
press it onto the bottle.
|
|
|
|
Stick glue (UHU or Pritt or the like).
|
|
|
|
Water/sugar/flour: The old kid-paste trick.
|
|
|
|
G30. BOTTLES & CORKS:
|
|
|
|
Any glass bottle without defect that will hold a cork firmly in its
|
|
neck will do. However, bottles that used to contain wine are
|
|
recommended. Sources are home use, friends, relatives, restaurants and
|
|
recycling bins.
|
|
|
|
TIP: Use one style of bottle for your wine, or at least one style per
|
|
batch of wine. That way the "whole experience" is more visually
|
|
appealling, and it may help you when storing & handling the bottles
|
|
(uniformity = easier).
|
|
|
|
There is a multitude of methods and general procedures for preparing
|
|
bottles for bottling; basically, they involve washing the bottle and
|
|
sanitizing them. To wash, soak the bottles in soapy hot water (which
|
|
incidentally will remove most labels without any labour) for half an
|
|
hour, rinse the outside, rinse the interior with a jet-spary bottle
|
|
washer, sanitize with a sulphite solution, and bottle your wine.
|
|
Dishwashers with HOT water can replace the rinsing of the outside of
|
|
the bottle (but NOT the inside) and sanitizing with sulphite.
|
|
|
|
Using soap to wash and/or chlorine bleach to sterilize the bottles is
|
|
not a concern as long as you rinse the bottles thoroughly on the inside
|
|
to remove any residue.
|
|
|
|
Corks should not be reused. When preparing, soak the corks in just
|
|
boiled water with sulphite in it for at least half an hour before
|
|
bottling. This will soften the corks and the sulphite will avoid
|
|
contamination from the corks and their handling. Steaming also works. Another method is to rinse corks in a sulphite solution, about 500 ppm,
|
|
then shake off the excess solution and place them in a bag for a week
|
|
before use. This allows the moisture to get absorbed into the corks
|
|
which softens them and makes it easier to insert.
|
|
|
|
Short corks are for short term storage, long corks are for long term
|
|
storage. Composite corks are for short term storage. The editor has
|
|
had more corked bottles from composite corks than whole ones.
|
|
|
|
Short corks are easier to pull, and often have fewer defects than
|
|
longer ones. End bevelling is only important for hammer corkers & the
|
|
both-end-bevelled ones allow hammer corking to proceed somewhat beyond
|
|
sobriety. The narrower corks (and silicone lubricated ones) are easier
|
|
for hand corking, and the wide ones are more secure and allow slightly
|
|
carbonated wines to be made without too many corks popping. Pure corks
|
|
are a little easier to put in and take out, but they have a lot more
|
|
defects than composite corks.
|
|
|
|
Plastic corks appear to be mildly inadequate, although useable for
|
|
short term storage. Problems include difficulty in retraction and
|
|
leakage. Some people have found that they work well and that
|
|
they are less expensive.
|
|
|
|
And it is suggested that you use a floor model corker if you make any
|
|
large amounts of wine and bottle it all as a hand corker can be tiring.
|
|
|
|
G31. HOW ABOUT DISTILLING MY WINE?
|
|
|
|
Distillation is basically heating an alcoholic beverage to the boiling
|
|
point and cooling its steam, with the intention of concentrating the
|
|
alcohol.
|
|
|
|
Though at perfectly safe levels when you ferment your wine,
|
|
distillation will concentrate the methanol content in your beverage to
|
|
levels that may be dangerous.
|
|
|
|
Because of the dangers of not properly removing the minute amounts of
|
|
methanol present found in most fermented products, home distillation is
|
|
illegal in most Western countries, and likely most others. There is a
|
|
remote possibility that it may also invite the government to your house
|
|
for an unwelcome visit.
|
|
|
|
THE EDITOR THEREFORE STRONGLY RECOMMENDS AGAINST ANY HOME ATTEMPTS AT
|
|
DISTILLATION.
|
|
|
|
G32. WHAT ARE GOOD REFERENCES FOR WINEMAKING?
|
|
|
|
For the beginner:
|
|
|
|
Modern Winemaking by Jackisch
|
|
|
|
Grapes into Wine by Philp Wagner
|
|
|
|
"The Roots of Health" by Gypsy Petulegro
|
|
|
|
For the more advanced:
|
|
|
|
Winemaking Basics by C.S. Ough. Don't let the title fool you, although
|
|
there are basics in there, some areas look like a chemistry course.
|
|
|
|
Wine Analysis and Production, Zoecklein et al., Chapman & Hall, and is
|
|
available through the magazine PWV (Practical Winery and Vineyard) for
|
|
$79.95 + shipping.
|
|
|
|
For both:
|
|
|
|
Winemaking: Recipes, equipment, and techniques for making wine at
|
|
home. Stanley F. Anderson and Dorothy Anderson. A Harvest/HBJ
|
|
Original. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. San Diego, New York, London.
|
|
1989.
|
|
|
|
You Made This? A Guide to Making Wine No One Knows is Homemade.
|
|
Thomas Bachelder. Kylix Media Inc. Montreal, Canada. 1992.
|
|
|
|
BETTER WINEMAKING MAGAZINE, a quarterly, NON-PROFIT publication,
|
|
dedicated to the home winemaking, cidermaking and brewing enthusiast.
|
|
Write to Paul Jean at jeanpaul@magi.com for further information.
|
|
|
|
GETTING STARTED WINEMAKING, Paul Jean Jr. Published by JE Underhill,
|
|
1993. Covers all aspects of winemaking from kits, introduces
|
|
winemaking from juice and grapes and gives recipes for wines from 48
|
|
non-grape fruits. Instructions on the use of a hydrometer, acid
|
|
testing (6 easy steps) calculating parts per million (ppm) and proper
|
|
use of sorbate to stabilize wines. Also are items on how to fix
|
|
problem wines. $5.00 by mail. Write to Paul Jean at jeanpaul@magi.com
|
|
for further information.
|
|
|
|
First Steps in WineMaking
|
|
By C.J.J. Berry
|
|
ISBN 0-900841-83-4
|
|
|
|
On cellars:
|
|
|
|
"How and Why To Build a Wine Cellar" by Richard M. Gold, Ph.D.
|
|
|
|
For Winery startup:
|
|
|
|
Practical Winery and Vineyard
|
|
15 Grande Paseo
|
|
San Rafael, CA 94903-1534
|
|
(415) 479-5819
|
|
Subcription is $30US/year for 6 issues (1995)
|
|
|
|
***************
|
|
TROUBLESHOOTING
|
|
***************
|
|
|
|
T01. I DIDN'T REHYDRATE MY YEAST. IS THAT BAD?
|
|
|
|
Not generally. It is recommended to rehydrate your yeast, however, as
|
|
this will give it a greater advantage in innoculating your wine and
|
|
avoiding contamination by other nasties. That means that the wine will
|
|
begin fermenting sooner. Rehydrate for at least 15 minutes; even
|
|
better overnight in a sample of the juice.
|
|
|
|
T02. WHY HASN'T MY WINE STARTED BUBBLING YET?
|
|
|
|
{I put the yeast in about 12 hours ago and I don't see any signs of
|
|
fermentation. Does wine yeast take longer to kick in?}
|
|
|
|
YES. The sugar level is higher in the wine must than in a beer wort,
|
|
and thus the yeast takes longer to get going. Float your rapidly
|
|
fermenting starter (rehydrated yeast) onto the top of the must.
|
|
|
|
The editor has also found that inadequate mixing of water and
|
|
concentrate plays tricks on the sugar/water concentration in different
|
|
parts of the fermentor, making ignition of the wine difficult for the
|
|
yeast. The solution is to properly mix the must, and as a safety
|
|
precaution add another packet of fresh yeast.
|
|
|
|
If your wine still refuses to start, the starter or wine could be too
|
|
hot or too cool, or the yeast too old. Ideal temperatures are between
|
|
20C to 22C (68F to 72F). If the starter or wine was too cool, move it
|
|
to a warmer location. If it was too warm, then move to a cooler
|
|
location. Note: you may need to reinnoculate if it was too warm, as
|
|
excessive warmth could kill your yeast.
|
|
|
|
Stuck ferment can be cured by, in the following order, A) moving the
|
|
wine to an area with an appropriate temperature, B) adding yeast
|
|
nutrient, C) adding yeast energizer, D) adding 1 gallon of the wine to
|
|
5 gallons of a similar wine during a healthy ferment.
|
|
|
|
T03. MY WINE STOPPED BUBBLING. WHAT'S WRONG?
|
|
|
|
{My wine was bubbling furiously for 3 weeks but has now stopped. I
|
|
moved it to a warmer room but still nothing. Any suggestions?}
|
|
|
|
The operative clue here is "3 weeks". Check your sg, and if it's less
|
|
than 1.000, then the wine has fermented out. Go to the next step.
|
|
Another possibility is that you have a very high alcohol wine (starting
|
|
sg higher than 1.100) and the alcohol level has gotten so high that the
|
|
yeast can't tolerate it anymore (and you might have a slightly sweet
|
|
wine.) If not, follow the instructions for stuck ferment in the
|
|
section T02. WHY HASN'T MY WINE STARTED BUBBLING YET?
|
|
|
|
T04. FOAMING PROBLEMS
|
|
|
|
{I just racked my kit wine from the primary into the carboy. The
|
|
problem is there is a lot of foam. When I had the bottom of the cork 1
|
|
inch from the top of the wine the foam came all the way up the cork
|
|
spout and into the air trap. I lowered the wine level to 2 inches and
|
|
it's not coming out anymore. Is this foam OK?}
|
|
|
|
Probably. Some kits foam a lot. If you stretch the kit beyond the 5
|
|
imp. gal. mark, the last gallon has to be transferred into a glass jug.
|
|
When there's too much foam in the secondary (usually 2-3 inches), start
|
|
the transfer into the jug. By the time the jug has been filled, most
|
|
of the foam in the secondary has subsided. The foam that forms in the
|
|
carboy during secondary or stays after transfer is annoying but
|
|
harmless. To avoid it being a problem in the air lock, keep the level
|
|
of the wine about two inches from the top.
|
|
|
|
You can use a sanitized drink stirrer from a restaurant to break up the
|
|
foam.
|
|
|
|
T05. MY WINE JUST WON'T CLEAR. WHY NOT?
|
|
|
|
{I'm in the middle of making a kit and am concerned about the time it's
|
|
taking to clear. The wine was racked after the primary and again after
|
|
10 days. The instructions say the wine should clear within 14 days
|
|
after the second racking and can be bottled then. There is a
|
|
disclaimer that if the wine hasn't cleared within the stated time, it
|
|
may be filtered.}
|
|
|
|
It could be related to stretching your clearing agents; don't. Buy
|
|
extra gelatin for extra wine over the 5 imp. gal. mark. In any event,
|
|
any wine may not clear 100%, and certainly even 2 weeks may not be long
|
|
enough. It could be that the fermentation is going slowly due to a
|
|
cold room.
|
|
|
|
It won't hurt the wine at all to leave it longer in the secondary.
|
|
Wine can be left an extra month at times with no problem. Racking
|
|
repeatedly won't help much as long as the secondary is left undisturbed
|
|
between rackings. As for filtering, always filter regardless of how
|
|
clear the wine is. Even if the wine isn't 100% clear, the resulting
|
|
bottled wine will usually be perfectly clear.
|
|
|
|
T06. MY FINED AND FILTERED WINE IS HAZY. WHAT'S WRONG?
|
|
|
|
{I made some Blackberry wine; the fermentation has now stopped and most
|
|
of the 'bits' have settled but there is still a lot of stuff sort of
|
|
hanging in the demijohn. What is this, what may I have done wrong, and
|
|
how can I prevent it next time?}
|
|
|
|
If you didn't use pectic enzyme during your fermentation to get rid of
|
|
it, the cause could be natural pectins in the fruit. Bentonite is also
|
|
helpful in clearing such haze. Activated charcoal may also work, but
|
|
may also strip your wine of other components if you put in too much or
|
|
use it for too long.
|
|
|
|
If all else fails, try leaving the finished wine outside overnight on a
|
|
cold, frosty night. Those who don't live in such cold climates can use
|
|
a refrigerator on a very cold setting. The cold will help it to clear.
|
|
|
|
T07. HOW DO I GET RID OF THE STRONG PAPER TASTE/PAPER FIBRES IN
|
|
FILTERED WINE?
|
|
|
|
When filtering your wine, the instructions should include a part on
|
|
running a couple of gallons of water through the filter first in order
|
|
to remove these problems.
|
|
|
|
T08. THE WINE I BOTTLED IS FIZZY. WHY?
|
|
|
|
{I opened some wine I bottled about 3 months ago and found it to be a
|
|
little fizzy. It can be just felt in the mouth, and is easy to see on
|
|
the sides of the glass. I have opened 3 bottles before this one and
|
|
didn't find the problem. Is it just beginning to show in all the
|
|
bottles, or is this bottle a fluke?}
|
|
|
|
There could be several "problems":
|
|
|
|
A) You didn't get rid of the carbonation sufficiently (stir it a little
|
|
harder and add an extra day of stirring before stabilizing.) This
|
|
usually presents itself from the first bottle opened on.
|
|
B) You didn't stabilize the wine correctly, and there may have been
|
|
some fermentation of residual sugar or MLF in the bottle. Don't
|
|
stretch stabilisers; buy extra for the extra wine. MLF can (and often
|
|
does) happen in the bottle. It happens because of low sulphite levels
|
|
at bottling. MLF will also cause cloudiness, followed by sediment.
|
|
C) When you filtered your wine (assuming you did it under vacuum) the
|
|
vacuum was insufficient to remove 100% of the carbonation. Not much
|
|
you can do except refer to A) and B).
|
|
|
|
T09. ORNERY BOTTLE LABELS
|
|
|
|
{Some labels are miserable ... even after soaking you have to pick the
|
|
label off a little at a time and no amount of scrubbing or scraping
|
|
removes all of the glue. Is there an easier way?}
|
|
|
|
A) Soak all your bottles in HOT soapy water with soap in it for a few
|
|
hours; most labels will come off readily.
|
|
B) Some glue isn't water soluble, so use some turpentine to dissolve
|
|
it; then use powdered soap to wash off the turpentine. Wallpaper
|
|
remover can also work well.
|
|
C) Occasionally expect to scrape off labels.
|
|
|
|
T10. MY WINE SMELLS BAD. WHAT HAPPENNED?
|
|
|
|
There are three major problems:
|
|
|
|
A) Somewhere along the line, you didn't keep things clean. The wine
|
|
could have been infected by something that produced off flavours and
|
|
smells. REMEMBER: Everything that touches the wine in any way has to
|
|
be very clean and sanitized first.
|
|
B) It's possible that your wine is corked. In this case, it will have
|
|
a strong cork smell and taste. The cause is that the cork you used
|
|
either wasn't properly sanitized before use or when it was made it
|
|
didn't get cleaned properly.
|
|
C) Rotten egg smell (hydrogen sulphide) can come from low acid wines in
|
|
which dead yeast start to lyse ("explode") and live cells feed on them
|
|
or when there is not enough yeast nutrient.
|
|
|
|
In cases A & B, your wine has gone bad. HOWEVER: It may be a bottle
|
|
by bottle problem, particularly with corked wine, so be careful about
|
|
wasting good wine. In case C, pour (do not syphon) the wine into a
|
|
clean vessel and add 1 campden tablet per gallon as well as some yeast
|
|
nutrient.
|
|
|
|
T11. I SEEM TO HAVE VINEGAR. ANY HOPE?
|
|
|
|
Nope. Throw it out or cook with it. It would be advisable to bleach
|
|
the infected containers as well. Your wood barrel should NEVER be used
|
|
again for winmaking, as the vinegar bacteria will never get out. Use
|
|
it as a planter in your yard. REMEMBER TO CLEAN ANYTHING THAT TOUCHES
|
|
YOUR WINE!
|
|
|
|
T12. MYCODERMA (FLOWERS OF WINE)
|
|
|
|
This is when grey islands appear on the surface. Before they
|
|
completely cover the surface (in which case it's too late, and you'll
|
|
have to throw it out) strain the wine through cotton mesh and add 2
|
|
campden tablets per gallon.
|
|
|
|
T13. I RINSED WITH COLD WATER AFTER SULPHITING. IS THAT BAD?
|
|
|
|
Usually this shouldn't cause a problem, unless your water supply isn't
|
|
potable or is unreliable.
|
|
|
|
Pros:
|
|
|
|
A) You can rinse out any extra dirt loosened by the sulphite solution
|
|
rinse
|
|
B) You can avoid as much bitter taste from sulphate (oxidized sulphite)
|
|
and reduce problems with sulphite allergies by rinsing it out
|
|
|
|
Cons:
|
|
|
|
A) You have a very mild risk of contamination which is contrary to the
|
|
process of sulphiting in the first place
|
|
|
|
T14. I NEED TO TOP UP. HOW DO I DO IT?
|
|
|
|
There are several suggestions:
|
|
|
|
- Make a little more wine than your secondary fermentor can hold, and
|
|
keep the extra amount in a sealed container in the fridge. Use it to
|
|
top up as you need to.
|
|
- Purchase a bottle or two of the same kind of wine and use to top up.
|
|
- Use water. Be careful as too much water will dilute your wine.
|
|
- Use marbles or clean stones to raise the level of the wine. Be
|
|
careful with regards to cleanliness.
|
|
- Use smaller containers.
|
|
- Use a CO2 source (such as vinegar and baking soda, or dry ice) to
|
|
create a blanket over the wine -- pour out the CO2 from the container,
|
|
but not the liquid!
|
|
|
|
Contributors:
|
|
|
|
Don Buchan (editor) (malak@cam.org), Eric Garrison (ericg@iquest.net),
|
|
Peter Rosback (peterr@wine.tv.tek.com), Tony DeVito (tonyd@dorsai.org),
|
|
Brian Carty (bcarty@bnr.ca), Rick Regan (rdr@law.cua.edu), David B.
|
|
Gibson (aj749@freenet.carleton.ca), Don Schiller (bigdon@minn.net), Dave
|
|
Kehlet (david.kehlet@eng.sun.com), Scott Arighi (sarig@teleport.com)
|
|
Richard Castle (rcastle@gpu2.srv.ualberta.ca), Victor Reijs
|
|
(reijs@surfnet.nl), Jack Ziebart (jziebart@bbs.sd68.nanaimo.bc.ca),
|
|
Christopher Sawtell (chris@gerty.equinox.gen.nz), Tamiko Toland
|
|
(veraison@aol.com) Brian Hiebert (bhieber@adminbldg.lan1.umanitoba.ca),
|
|
Greg Owen (gowen@cs.tufts.edu, gowen@xis.xerox.com), Paul
|
|
(placitas76@aol.com), K.D. Colagio (kdc5072@ultb.isc.rit.edu), Mark
|
|
Levesque (levesque@nacto.lkg.dec.com), Philip DiFalco (sxupjd@fnma.com),
|
|
Anthony Hawkins (hawkins@bigvax.alfred.edu), Patrick J. Tierney
|
|
(projexis@ottawa.net), Bob Konigsberg (bobk@3com.com), Tim Hodkinson
|
|
(timothy@lerhost.demon.co.uk), Michael Arthurs (fqcx72a@prodigy.com),
|
|
Bob Konigsberg (bobk@3com.com), Art Turner (an220@freenet3.carleton.ca),
|
|
Ronald Elshaug (rone@worf.rchland.ibm.com), Bryan Johnson
|
|
(green@gatewest.net), Ronald Elshaug (rone@worf.rchland.ibm.com), Klaus
|
|
Oehr (Klaus_Oehr@mindlink.bc.ca), Morley (news@cunews.carleton.ca), Geza
|
|
T Szenes (Geza_T_Szenes/IPL.IPL@notes.ipl.ca), John Katchmer
|
|
(74542.3312@compuserve.com), Warren Vidrine (75113.3343@compuserve.com,
|
|
vidrine@aol.com)
|
|
|
|
The NET RESOURCES section is in a seperate posting.
|