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463 lines
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Taken from KeelyNet BBS (214) 324-3501
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September 2, 1991
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ZPE4.ASC
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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This paper shared with KeelyNet courtesy of Dr. Harold Puthoff.
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Originally published in New Scientist, July 28, 1990
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Sent to KeelyNet in August of 1990.
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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Everything for Nothing
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by Harold Puthoff
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Classical physics tells us that if we think of an atom as a
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miniature solar system with electronic planets orbiting a nuclear
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sun, then it should not exist. The circling electrons SHOULD
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RADIATE AWAY their energy like microscopic radio antennas and spiral
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into the nucleus. To resolve this problem, physicists had to
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introduce a set of mathematical rules, called quantum mechanics, to
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describe what happens. Quantum theory endows matter and energy
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with both wave and particle-like characteristics. It also restrains
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electrons to particular orbits, or energy levels, so they cannot
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radiate energy unless they jump from one orbit to another.
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Measuring the spectral lines of atoms verifies that quantum theory
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is correct. Atoms appear to emit or absorb packets of light, or
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photons, with a wavelength that exactly coincides with the
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difference between its energy levels as predicted by quantum theory.
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As a result, the majority of physicists are content simply to use
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quantum rules that describe so accurately what happens in their
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experiments.
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Nevertheless, when we repeat the question: "But why doesn't the
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electron radiate away its energy?", the answer is: "Well, in quantum
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theory it JUST DOESN'T". It is at this point that not only the
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layman but also some physicists begin to feel that someone is not
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playing fair. Indeed, much of modern physics is based on theories
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couched in a form that works but they do not answer the fundamental
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questions of what gravity is, why the Universe is the way it is, or
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how it got started anyway. Surprisingly, there may be answers to
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these seemingly unanswerable questions. Perhaps even more
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surprising, the answers seem to be emerging from empty space, the
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vacuum, the void.
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In fact, according to quantum theory, the vacuum, the space between
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particles of matter as well as between the stars, is not empty, it
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is filled with vast amounts of fluctuating energy.
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Page 1
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To understand this extraordinary idea, we will have to take a detour
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into the phenomenon of "fluctuations" with which quantum theory
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abounds. Fluctuations arise as one of the most fundamental concepts
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to come out of the mathematics of quantum theory. This is the
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uncertainty principle enunciated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, which
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says that it is impossible to know everything about a system because
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of what would seem to be inherent fluctuations in the very fabric of
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nature itself. Indeed, quantum mechanics is a statistical theory
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that deals with probabilities and it has some profound consequences
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for our understanding of reality. For instance, we cannot know the
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position and the momentum of an electron at the same time. If we
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know its momentum, or energy, accurately, then we can determine its
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position only probabilistically.
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This "fuzziness" of positions described in terms of probability
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waves gives a measure of the size and shape over which an electronic
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orbit fluctuates in an atom. It also means that the energy of a
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particle or system is "fuzzy" and thus there is a slight probability
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of it changing, or fluctuating, to another value. In fact, a system
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can actually, by fluctuation, "tunnel" through an energy barrier
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because there is a small but finite probability of the system
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existing on the other side of the barrier. I shall discuss later a
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possible cause for such fluctuation phenomena.
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The adjective zero-point denotes that such motion exists even at a
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temperature of absolute zero where no thermal agitation effects
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remain. Although we cannot observe the zero-point energy on, say,
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the pendulum of a grandfather clock because it is so minute, it is
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nonetheless real. In many physical systems this has important
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consequences. One example is the presence of a certain amount of
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"noise" in a microwave receiver that can NEVER be removed, no matter
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how perfect the technology.
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This zero-point energy is the result of the unpredicatable random
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fluctuations of the vacuum energy, as predicted by the uncertainty
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principle, which is zero in classical theory. In fact, these
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fluctuations can be intense enough TO CAUSE PARTICLES TO FORM from
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the vacuum SPONTANEOUSLY, provided they disappear again before
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violating the uncertainty principle. This temporary formation of
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"virtual" particles is somewhat akin to the spray that forms near a
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turbulent waterfall. (also termed "quantum foam"....Vangard)
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Of all the zero-point fluctuation phenomena, the zero-point
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fluctuations of electromagnetic energy are the most easy to detect.
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Electromagnetic waves have standing, or travelling modes, that are a
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bit like the various modes of waves going along a rope that is
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shaken. Each set of waves has its own characteristic set of nodes
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and crests. It turns out that even though the zero-point energy in
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any particular mode of an electromagnetic field is minute
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(equivalent to half a photon's worth), there are nearly an infinite
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number of possible modes of propagation, that is frequencies and
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directions. The zero-point energy ADDED UP OVER ALL POSSIBLE MODES,
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therefore, is QUITE ENORMOUS. As hard as it is to believe, it is
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greater than the energy density in the atomic nucleus. And this in
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all of the so-called "empty" space around us.
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Because the zero-point energy of the electromagnetic fields is so
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large, you might expect to see its effects easily, but this is not
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the case because its density is very uniform. Just as a vase
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Page 2
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standing in a true void is not likely to fall over spontaneously,
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so a vase bombarded UNIFORMLY on all sides by packets of zero-point
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energy would not do likewise because of the BALANCED CONDITIONS of
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the uniform bombardment. The only evidence of such a barrage of
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energy might be minute jiggling of the vase. Such a mechanism is
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thought to be involved in the quantum JIGGLE of zero-point motions.
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There are situations, however, where the uniformity of the
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electromagnetic zero-point energy is slightly disturbed and this
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leads to effects you can ACTUALLY MEASURE. One situation is when
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the zero-point energy perturbs slightly the spectra of lines from
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transitions between quantum levels in atoms. This perturbation is
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known as the LAMB SHIFT, named after the American physicist, Willis
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Lamb. This work carried out in the late 1940's, using techniques
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developed for wartime radar, showed that the effect of zero-point
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fluctuations of the electromagnetic field was to jiggle the
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electrons slightly in their atomic orbits, leading to a shift in
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frequency of transitions of about 1000 MEGAHERTZ.
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Another, also named after its discoverer, is the CASIMIR EFFECT -
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which predicts that two metal plates close together ATTRACT EACH
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OTHER. Consider plates set at a certain distance apart. In the
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space between the plates, only those vacuum fluctuations for which a
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whole number of half-waves just spans the distance can exist, just
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like waves formed by shaking a rope tied at both ends. Outside the
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plates, the fluctuations can have many more values because there is
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more space. The number of modes outside the plates, all of which
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carry energy and momentum, is greater than those inside. This
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imbalance PUSHES THE PLATES TOGETHER. (the metal plates would thus
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serve as a ZPE refractor, see NEUTRAL1 on KeelyNet....Vangard)
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___ ___
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\\ | | | | //
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\\ | | | | //
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ZPE ___________\\| | | |//__________ ZPE
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Push -----------//| | | |\\---------- Push
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// | | | | \\
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// | | | | \\
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Metal Plates
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The Casimir Effect : An imbalance in the quantum fluctuations of
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empty space can PUSH two metal plates
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together
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What does this have to do with our basic question of why the
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electron in a simple hydrogen atom does not radiate as it circles
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the protons in its lowest-energy orbit? I have considered this
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point by taking into account what other physicists have learned over
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the years about the effects of zero-point energy. I discovered that
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you can consider the electron as continually radiating away its
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energy as predicted by classical theory, but SIMULTANEOUSLY
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ABSORBING a COMPENSATING AMOUNT of energy from the ever-present sea
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of zero-point energy in which the atom is immersed. An equilibrium
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between these two processes leads to the correct values for the
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Page 3
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parameters that define the lowest energy, or ground-state orbit (see
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"Why atoms don't collapse," NEW SCIENTIST, July 1987). Thus there
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is a DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM in which the zero-point energy stabilises
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the electron in a set ground-state orbit. It seems that the very
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stability of matter itself appears to depend on an underlying sea of
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electromagnetic zero-point energy.
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-------------------------------------------
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Gravity as a Long-Range Casimir Force
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As well as providing new insights into quantum theory, zero-point
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fluctuations also give us some insight into gravity. Einstein's
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general theory of relativity describes gravity well but we still do
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not know its fundamental nature very well. The theory is basically
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descriptive without revealing the underlying dynamics for that
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description. As a result, attempts to unify gravity with the other
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forces (electromagnetic, strong and weak nuclear forces) or to
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develop a quantum theory of gravity have foundered again and again
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on difficulties that can be traced back to a lack of understanding
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at a fundamental level. To rectify these difficulties, theorists
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have resorted to ever-increasing levels of mathematical
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sophistication and abstraction, as in the recent development of
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supergravity and superstring theories.
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The well-known Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov took a completely
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different tack to explain such difficulties. He suggested that
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gravity might not be a fundamental interaction at all, but rather a
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secondary or RESIDUAL effect associated with other, non-
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gravitational fields. Gravity might be an effect brought about by
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changes in the zero-point energy of the vacuum, due to the presence
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of matter ("A key to understanding gravity", NEW SCIENTIST, April
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1981). If correct, you could then consider gravity as a variation
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on the Casimir theme, in which the pressures of background zero-
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point energy were again responsible. Although Sakharov did not
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develop the concept much further, he did outline certain criteria
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such a theory would have to meet - for example, predicting the value
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of the gravitational constant G in terms of the parameters given by
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zero-point energy theory.
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I have studied Sakharov's approach to gravity in detail with some
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positive results. A particle sitting in the sea of electromagnetic
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zero-point fluctuations develops a "jitter" motion, or
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ZITTERBEWEGUNG as German physicists have named it. When there are
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two or more particles, they are each influenced not only by the
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fluctuating background field, but also by the fields generated by
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the other particles, all similarly undergoing Zitterbewegung motion.
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The coupling between particles due to these fields produces the
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attractive gravitational force. Gravity can, therefore, be
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understood as a sort of LONG-RANGE Casimir force.
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Because of its electromagnetic underpinning, gravitational theory in
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this form constitutes what is known as an "already-unified" theory.
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The main benefit of the new approach is that it helps us to
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understand characteristics of the way gravity works that were
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previously unexplained. These include why gravity is so weak; why
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positive but not negative mass exists; and the fact that gravity
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cannot be shielded because zero-point fluctuations pervade space and
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so cannot be shielded.
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Page 4
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So, if we have an explanation for non-radiating atomic ground states
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and for gravity, do we know where the electromagnetic zero-point
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energy comes from in the first place? There are two schools of
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thought. One is that it is just simply a part of the boundary
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conditions of our Universe like, for example, the background
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radiation left over from the big bang. The other is that the zero-
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point energy is generated by quantum-fluctuation motion of the
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charged particles of the latter. I assumed that zero-point fields
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drive the motion throughout the Universe, in turn, generate the
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zero-point fields in the form of a self-regenerating feedback cycle,
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not unlike a cat chasing its own tail.
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This self-consistent approach yielded the correct values for the
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zero-point field. Thus, the zero-point fields observed at any given
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point are due to random radiation arriving from particles throughout
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the Unverse that are themselves undergoing zero-point motion ("Where
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does the zero-point energy come from?", NEW SCIENTIST, December 2,
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1989).
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These self-regenerating zero-point fields also produce the familiar
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properties of quantum theory, such as fluctuation phenomena and the
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uncertainty principle, for example. This means that it might be
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possible to model many aspects of quantum theory on the basis of
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self-consistent, random interactions between particles and the zero-
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point fluctuation fields they generate.
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Although a knowledge of zero-point fields emerged from quantum
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physics as that subject matured, Timothy Boyer at City College in
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New York took a contrary view. In the late 1960's, he began asking
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what would happen if we took classical physics as it was and
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introduced a background of random, classical fluctuating zero-point
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fields. Such fields would presumably have originated in the initial
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random processes of the big bang and then by regeneration as I have
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just described. Could such an all-classical model reproduce quantum
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theory in its entirety, and might this possibility have been
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overlooked by the founders of quantum theory who were not aware of
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the existence of such a fluctuating background field?
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Boyer began by tackling the problems that led to quantum theory
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being introduced in the first place, such as the blackbody radiation
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curve and the photoelectric effect. His upstart, neoclassical
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approach reproduced the known quantum results one by one. This
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approach is called STOCHASTIC ELECTRODYNMAICS (SED), in contrast to
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QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS (QED). Indeed, Peter Milonni at the Los
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Alamos National Labroratory in the US noted in a review of the Boyer
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work that if physicists in 1900 had thought of taking this route,
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they would probably have been more comfortable with this classical
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approach than with Max Planck's hypothesis of the quantum. One can
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only speculate as to the direction that physics would have taken
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them.
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The list of topics successfully analysed using the SED approach,
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which produce THE SAME RESULTS as when the QED approach is used, has
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now been extended to include the harmonic oscillator, Casimir and
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van der Waals forces and the thermal effects of acceleration through
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the vacuum.
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Out of this work emerged the reasons for such phenomena as the
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uncertainty principle, the fluctuating motion of particles, the
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Page 5
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existence of van der Waals forces even at zero temperature, and so
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forth, all show to be due to the influence of the unceasing activity
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of the random background fields.
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There are also some notable gaps in the development of SED; for
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example, deriving Schrodinger's equation, as yet turns out to be an
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intractable problem. Several researchers are confident, however,
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that this obstacle can be overcome. Until theory as we have come to
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know it will be entirely replaced by a refurbished classical theory
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in the near future.
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But regardless of the final outcome, the successes to date of the
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SED approach, by its highlighting of the role of background zero-
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point fluctuations, means that when the final chapter is written on
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quantum theory, field fluctuations in empty space will be accorded
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an honoured position.
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And now to the biggest question of all, where did the Universe come
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from? Or, in modern terminology, what started the big bang? Could
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quantum fluctuations of empty space have something to do with this
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as well?
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Edward Tyron of the City University of New York thought so in 1973
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when he proposed that our Universe may have originated as a
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fluctuation of the vacuum on a large scale, as "simply one of those
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things which happen from time to time".
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This idea was later refined and updated within the context of
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inflationary cosmology by Alexander Vilenkin of Tufts University,
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who proposed that the universe is created by quantum tunnelling from
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literally nothing into the something we call the Universe. Although
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highly speculative, these models indicate that physicists find
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themselves turning again and again to the void and fluctuations
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therein for their answers.
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Those with a practical bent of mind may be left with yet one more
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unanswered question. Can you find mundane applications for this
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emerging Rosetta Stone of physics? Will it be possible to extract
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electrical energy from the vacuum? Robert Forward at Hughes
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Research Laboratories in Malibu, California has considered this
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possibility. Could the engineer of the future specialise in "vacuum
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engineering" as the Nobel laureate Tsun-Dao Lee has put it? Could
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the energy crises be solved by harnessing the energies of the zero-
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point "sea"? After all, the basic form of zero-point energy is
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highly random and tends to cancel itself out, so if a way could be
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found to bring order out of chaos, then, because of the highly
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energetic nature of the vacuum fluctuations, relatively large
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effects could be produced.
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Given our relative ignorance at this point, we must fall back on a
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quote given by the Soviet science historian Roman Poldolny when
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contemplating this issue. "It would be just as presumptuous to deny
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the feasibility of useful application as it would be irresponsible
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to guarantee such application." Only the future can reveal the
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ultimate use to which humans will put this remaining fire of the
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gods, the quantum fluctuations of empty space.
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 6
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Harold Puthoff is a theoretical physicist at the Institute for
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Advanced Studies at Austin in Texas. He specialises in Quantum
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Electrodynamics.
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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Further Reading
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"The classical vacuum", SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
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Timothy Boyer, August 1985,
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p. 70
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"Is the vacuum really empty?", AMERICAN SCIENTIST
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Walter Greiner and Joseph Hamilton, March-April 1980,
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p. 154
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Something Called Nothing - Physical Vacuum, What is it?
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Roman Podolny, MIR, 1986
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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Vangard note...
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We also suggest you download CFG1 and CPEDOG which deal with
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Charge Fluctuations, the Casimir effect and Gravity.
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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If you have comments or other information relating to such topics
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as this paper covers, please upload to KeelyNet or send to the
|
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Vangard Sciences address as listed on the first page.
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Thank you for your consideration, interest and support.
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Jerry W. Decker.........Ron Barker...........Chuck Henderson
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Vangard Sciences/KeelyNet
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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If we can be of service, you may contact
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Jerry at (214) 324-8741 or Ron at (214) 242-9346
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--------------------------------------------------------------------
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Page 7
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