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586 lines
32 KiB
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9 page printout
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Bank of Wisdom, Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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**** ****
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SECULAR MORALITY:
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WHAT IS IT?
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AN EXPOSITION AND A DEFENCE.
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by CHARLES WATTS.
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LONDON:
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WATTS & CO., 84, Fleet Street, E.C.
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1880.
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**** ****
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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AMONG the systems of moral philosophy that have been
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promulgated as guides for human conduct, Utilitarianism occupies
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the foremost place. It appears to Secularists as more definite and
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satisfactory than any other, and certainly at the present time it
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is more generally accepted by thinkers and that class of men whose
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views mold the intellectual opinions of the age. The principle of
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Utilitarianism has a regard solely to the uses of things; hence all
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actions by it are to be judged of by their use to society, and the
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morality of an action will consequently depend upon its utility. An
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important question here suggests itself: What is Utility, and how
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is it to be judged of and tested? What, it is urged, may appear
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useful to one man, another may regard as altogether useless; who,
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therefore, is to decide respecting the utility of an act? The
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answer will be found in the greatest-happiness principle, which is
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of itself a modern development of the doctrine, and somewhat in
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opposition to the first form of Utilitarianism. "Usefulness,"
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observes David Hume, "is agreeable, and engages our approbation.
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This is a matter of fact, confirmed by daily observation. But
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useful? For what? For somebody's interest, surely. Whose interest,
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then? Not our own only, for our approbation frequently extends
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farther. It must, therefore, be the interest of those who are
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served by the characters or action approved of; and these we may
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conclude, however remote, are not totally indifferent to us. But,
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opening up this principle, we shall discover one great source of
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moral distinction." Here it is clear that with Hume the doctrine of
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utility was intimately associated with approbation -- in fact, the
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two were inseparably connected. The greatest-happiness principle,
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as will be seen, grew very naturally out of this, but is a much
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more recent development.
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The utility of acts and objects have doubtless had much to do
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with the estimation in which these are held in society, whether the
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fact be recognized or not. Hume says: "It seems so natural a
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thought to ascribe to their utility the praise which we bestow on
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the social virtues that one would expect to meet with this
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principle everywhere in moral writers, as the chief foundation of
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their reasoning and inquiry. In common life we may observe that the
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circumstance of utility is always appealed to; nor is it supposed
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that a greater eulogy can be given to any man than to display his
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Bank of Wisdom
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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1
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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usefulness to the public, and enumerate the services which he has
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performed to mankind and to society. What praise, even of an
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inanimate form, if the regularity and elegance of its parts destroy
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not its fitness for any useful purpose! And how satisfactory an
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apology for any disproportion or seeming deformity if we can show
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the necessity of that particular construction for the use intended.
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A ship appears more beautiful to an artist, or one moderately
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skilled in navigation, where the prow is wide and swelling beyond
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its poop, than if it were framed with a precise geometrical
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regularity in contradiction to all the laws of mechanics. A
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building whose doors and windows were exact squares would meet the
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eye, by that very proportion, as ill adapted to the figure of a
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human creature for whose service the fabric was intended. What
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wonder, then, that a man whose habits and conduct are hurtful to
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society, and dangerous and pernicious to every one who has
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intercourse with him, should on that account be an object of
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disapprobation, and communicate to every spectator the strongest
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sentiment of disgust and hatred?" That this is so there cannot be
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the slightest doubt. Nor is this principle a purely selfish one, as
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some have contended, since the uses of arts refer not simply to
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their operation upon ourselves individually, but upon society at
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large. Self-love is no doubt involved here, as, in fact, it is in
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everything we do. But self-love is not the ruling principle any
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further than that it is identical with the love of humanity. The
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great fact of mutual sympathy here comes in. The reciprocal feeling
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of joy or sorrow has been experienced probably by every person. The
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pleasures and pains of our fellows affect us largely, whether we
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will or no. There is no man so selfish but he finds his joys
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increased when they are shared by others, and his griefs lessened
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when he sorrows in company. This fact Hume has worked out at great
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length, with a view to show why it is that utility pleases.
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'Viewing Utilitarianism, therefore, as simply a question of utility
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in the lowest sense of that word, it is yet a most potent agent in
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society, and has much more to do with forming our conclusions as to
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the morality of certain acts than is usually imagined. The man of
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use is the man whom society delights to honor; and very properly,
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for he is the real benefactor of his species. To say that a thing
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is useful is to bestow upon it a high degree of praise, while no
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greater condemnation can be passed upon any piece of work than to
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say that it is useless. Even the supposed gods have been estimated
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by their utility; for Cicero charges the deities of the Epicureans
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with being useless and inactive, and declares that the Egyptians
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never consecrated any animal except for its utility.
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The principle of Utilitarianism as a moral system cannot be
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said to have received a definite shape until it was advocated by
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Jeremy Bentham. Even with him it did not appear in that clear and
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explicit form which John Stuart Mill has since imparted to it. In
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his writings we have for the first time something like philosophic
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precision. Pleasure and pain are shown to form the basis of
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utility, and to furnish us with the means of judging of what is
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useful and what is not.
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To speak of pain and pleasure to ordinary persons conveys no
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idea as to the welfare or otherwise of society, but leads the mind
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to revert to its own individual good or evil, and then to impart a
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selfish basis to the whole thing. This was not what was meant by
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Bank of Wisdom
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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2
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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Bentham, as the following passage from his work will show: "By
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utility is meant that property in any object whereby it tends to
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produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness (all this,
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in the present case, comes to the same thing); or (what comes again
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to the same thing) to prevent the happening of mischief, pain,
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evil, or unhappiness to the party whose interest is considered: if
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that party be the community in general, then the happiness of the
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community; if a particular individual, then the happiness of that
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individual." Bentham takes great pains to show that the community
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is a "fictitious body composed of the individual persons who are
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considered as constituting, as it were, its members." and that
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therefore the interest of the community is simply "the sum of the
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interests of the several members who compose it." He then goes on
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to affirm that "an action may be said to be conformable to the
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principle of utility, or, for shortness' sake, to utility (meaning
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with respect to the community at large), when the tendency it has
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to augment the happiness of the community is greater than any it
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has to diminish it," which is really another way of saying the
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greatest happiness of the greatest number, or, to use a far more
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preferable phrase, the greatest amount of happiness for all. "The
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words ought and right and wrong, and others of that stamp," take
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their meaning from this principle. This philosophy was full of the
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practical spirit of the age which gave it birth, and it exhibited
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an utter disregard for the unproductive theories of the past. The
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idea of happiness very largely took the place of the old idea of
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duty, wherein was seen a powerful reaction against the sentimental
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ethics that had prevailed so long. Its attempt was to base virtue
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on moral legislation, rather than on feeling, and to construct an
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ethical code out of the most matter-of-fact materials. Thus self
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sacrifice, which, of course, is one of the highest and noblest
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duties of man, is in no way incompatible with Utilitarianism and
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the pursuit of happiness; since, whatever pleasures he who
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practices self-denial may voluntarily forego, it is always with a
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view of procuring, if not for himself, yet for his fellows, some
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greater good. The martyr at the stake, the patriot in the field of
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battle, the physician penetrating into the midst of the death-
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breathing miasma with a view to alleviate pain, each feels a sense
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of satisfaction in the act, which is really the intensest kind of
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happiness to himself, and, what is more important, he is procuring
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happiness on a large scale for his fellow creatures. It is not
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individual, but general, happiness that the Utilitarian has to keep
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before his eye as the motive of all his actions.
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In any moral system it is essential that not only should the
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code laid down be clear, but the motive to obey it should also be
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made apparent, In other words, what is termed the sanction of the
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principle must be pointed out. It would be of little value to have
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a perfect method in mortals unless the sanctions were such as were
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likely to influence mankind. Now, Mr. Mill has not overlooked this
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fact in connection with Utilitarianism, but has devoted
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considerable space to its consideration. He seems to think,
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however, that no new sanctions are needed for Utilitarianism, since
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in time -- and in an improved state of society -- it will have at
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command all the old ones. He says: "The principle of utility either
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has, or there is no reason why it might not have, all the sanctions
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which belong to any other system of morals. These sanctions are
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either external or internal." He then enlarges upon these with a
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Bank of Wisdom
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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3
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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view to show that the greater number of them belong as much to
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Utilitarianism as to any other ethical code. The sanction of duty,
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upon which so much stress is laid by the opponents of
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Utilitarianism, becomes as clear and as powerful under the new
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system as under the old. Whatever may be the standard of duty, and
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whatever the process by which the idea his been attained, the
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feeling will in all cases be very much the same. The pain
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occasioned by a violation of what is called the moral law,
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constituting what is usually termed conscience, will be felt quite
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as keenly when the law has been arrived at by a Utilitarian process
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of reasoning, and when the moral nature has been built up upon
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Utilitarian principles, as in any other case. The ultimate sanction
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of all morality is very much the same -- a subjective feeling in
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our own minds, resulting from physical conditions, country, and
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education.
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This, then, is briefly the Utilitarianism which we hold to
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constitute a sufficient guide in morals, and to be worthy to
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supplant the old and erroneous systems that now prevail. As
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Secularists, we are content to be judged by this standard. This
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system we accept as the ethical code by which we profess to
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regulate our conduct. There can hardly be conceived a higher aim
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than happiness, especially the happiness of the race. That perfect
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happiness is not attainable we, of course, admit; but neither is
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anything else in perfection. Nothing, however, can be more certain
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than the fact that very many of the present causes of unhappiness
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could be removed by well-directed effort on the part of society,
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and the result be a state of things of which, at the present time,
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we can hardly form any conception. The duty of each of us is to do
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as much as possible towards bringing this about.
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In Mr. Mill's work upon "Utilitarianism" the following passage
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occurs: "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals
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utility, or the greatest-happiness principle, holds that actions
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are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as
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they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is
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intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and
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the privation of pleasure. To give a clear view of the moral
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standard set up by this theory, much more requires to be said; in
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particular, what things it includes in the ideas of pain and
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pleasure; and to what extent this is left an open question. But
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these supplementary explanations do not affect the theory of life
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of which this theory of morality is grounded -- namely, that
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pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as
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ends, and that all desirable things (which are as numerous in the
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utilitarian as many other scheme) are desirable either for the
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pleasure inherent in themselves, or as a means to the promotion of
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pleasure and the prevention of pain." It must be understood that
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the word pleasure here is used in its very highest sense, and
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includes, consequently, such enjoyments as arise from the culture
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of the intellect, the development of the sentiments, the use of the
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imagination, and the action of the emotions. One of the errors into
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which the opponents of utilitarian happiness frequently fall is
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that of confounding pleasure with the mere gratification of the
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animal propensities. If this were so, the whole system would be a
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most despicable one, and unworthy the attention of men of
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intelligence and moral worth. But it is not; and he who brings this
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Bank of Wisdom
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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4
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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as a charge against it does so either in gross ignorance, or with
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a view to pervert the truth. Perhaps it was not wise to use the
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words pleasure and happiness as synonymous, seeing that they are
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usually employed to mean two very different things; but the
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explanation having been given that they are so used, no one can
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plead this use as an excuse for falling into error on the subject.
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Secular morality is based upon the principle that happiness is
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the chief end and aim of mankind. And although there are doubtless,
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persons who would warmly dispute this fundamental principle, it is
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very questionable whether their objection is not more verbal than
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anything else. That all men desire happiness is certain. The
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doctrine enunciated in the well-known line of Pope is frequently
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quoted, and generally with approval:
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"Oh, happiness! our being's end and aim."
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When we meet with persons who profess to despise this aspiration,
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it will be generally found that it is only some popular conception
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of happiness of which they are careless, while they really pursue
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a happiness of their own, in their own way, with no less ardor than
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other people. A definition of happiness itself is not easy to give.
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Each person would, were he asked to define it, in all probability
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furnish a somewhat different explanation; but the true meaning of
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all would be very much the same. To refer again to Pope, what truth
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there is in the following couplet! --
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"Who can define it, say they more or less
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Than this, that happiness is happiness?"
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With one it is the culture of the intellect; with another, the
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exercise of the emotions with a third, the practice of deeds of
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philanthropy and charity; and with yet another -- we regret to say
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-- the gratification of the lower propensities. In each case it is
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the following of the pursuit which most accords with the
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disposition of the individual. And wherever this course does not
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interfere with the happiness of others, and is not more than
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counter-balanced by any results that may arise from it afterwards,
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it is not only legitimate, but moral. Broadly, then, Secular
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efforts for the attainment of happiness may be said to consist in
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endeavoring to perform those actions which entail no ill effects
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upon general society, and leave no injurious effects upon the
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actors. Such conduct as is here intimated involves the practice of
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truth, self-discipline, fidelity to conviction, and the avoidance
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of knowingly acting unjustly to others.
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Mr. Mill points out -- and herein he differs from Bentham --
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that not only must the quantity of the pleasure or happiness be
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taken into consideration, bat the quality likewise. He remarks: "It
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would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality
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is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasure
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should be disposed to depend on quantity alone." True, it may not
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always be easy to estimate the exact respective value of the
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different qualities of pleasure; but this is not necessary. An
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approximation to it can be obtained without difficulty. In all
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those who have had experience both of the higher and lower kinds of
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pleasure -- that is, of the culture of the intellect and the
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Bank of Wisdom
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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5
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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gratification of the passions -- a preference is generally shown,
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at least in theory, for the higher. And the rest are in no position
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to fairly judge. It may be urged that many a man who possesses the
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rare wealth of a cultured mind will be found sometimes grovelling
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in the mire of sensuality, thereby showing a preference for a time
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for the lowest kind of pleasure, To this it may be replied that the
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fact is only temporary, and cannot, therefore, be set against the
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experience of months and years -- perhaps of the greatest portion
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of a life; and, secondly, he does not in his own opinion, even
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while descending to indulge in the lower pleasure, give up his
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interest in the higher; so that the defection cannot be looked upon
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in the light of an exchange. He feels that he will be able to go
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back again to his intellectual pursuits, and enjoy them as before.
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Ask him to make a permanent exchange -- to give up forever the
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higher pleasures, on the condition that he shall have a continuance
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of the lower to his heart's content, and probably he will treat the
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offer with scorn. "Few humin beings," observes Mr. Mill, "would
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consent to be changed into any of the lower animals for a promise
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of the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures; no intelligent
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human being would consent to be a fool; no instructed person would
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be an ignoramus; no person of feeling and conscience would be
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selfish and base, even though they should be persuaded that the
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fool, the dunce, or the rascal is better satisfied with his lot
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than they with theirs. They would not resign what they possess more
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than he for the most complete satisfaction of all the desires which
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they have in common with him." Those who neglect their capacities
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for enjoying the higher pleasures may probably imagine that their
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happiness is greater but their opinion on the subject is worthless,
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because they only know one side. On this question, therefore, we
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find unanimity -- it least, with all who are competent to judge of
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the question.
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The most important point to be considered in connection with
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this question of Secular happiness is that it is not the pleasure
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of the individual that is considered paramount, but of the
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community of which he forms a part. The principle of the greatest
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happiness is often treated in a discussion of this subject as
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though it meant the greatest possible pleasure that the individual
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can procure for himself by his acts, regardless of the welfare of
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his fellow creatures, which would be selfishness in the extreme.
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Nothing can be more unselfish than Secular morality, since the sole
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object it has in view is the happiness of the community at large.
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And every act of the individual must be performed with this in
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view, and will be considered moral or not in the proportion in
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which this is done. In corroboration of this view, Mr. Mill truly
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remarks: "According to the greatest-happiness principle, as above
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explained, the ultimate end with reference to and for the sake of
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which all other things are desirable (whether we are considering
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our own good or that of other people), is an existence exempt as
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far as possible from pain, and as rich as possible in enjoyments,
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both in point of quantity and quality; the test of quality and the
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rule for measuring it against quantity being the preference felt by
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those who, in their opportunities of experience, to which must be
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added their habits of self-consciousness and self-observation, are
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best furnished with the means of comparison. This being, according
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to the utilitarian opinion, the end of human action, is necessarily
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also the standard of morality; which may accordingly be defined,
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Bank of Wisdom
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
|
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6
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SECULAR MORALITY.
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the rules and precepts for human conduct, by the observance of
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which an existence such as has been described might be, to the
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greatest extent possible, secured to all mankind; and not to them
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only, but to the whole sentient creation." Two facts of great
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importance are to be noticed in this extract; first, that happiness
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is the end of existence, and that all human effort should be bent
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as far as possible to the attainment of this object; and, secondly,
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that here, and here only, can the true standard of morality be
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found. The second principle flows as a necessary consequence from
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the first. All human action must, therefore, be brought to the test
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of how far it is conducive to the promotion of the greatest
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happiness of society at large. The consistent performance of such
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action will tend to promote the Secular idea of human happiness and
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the welfare of mankind.
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The question is asked, Why is Secularism regarded by its
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adherents as being superior to theological and other speculative
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theories of the day? The answer is (1) because we believe its moral
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basis to be more definite and practical than other existing ethical
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codes; and (2) because Secular teachings appear to us to be more
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reasonable and of greater advantage to general society than the
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various theologies of the world, and that of orthodox Christianity
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in particular.
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First, compare Secular views of morality with the numerous and
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conflicting theories that have been put forward at various times on
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the important topic of moral philosophy. From most of those
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theories it is not easy to reply satisfactorily to the question,
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Why is one act wrong and another right? There is no difficulty,
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generally speaking, in pointing out what acts are vicious and what
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others virtuous; but to say why one is immoral and another moral is
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a very different matter. Ask for a definition of virtue, and you
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receive in reply an illustration. You will be told that it is wrong
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to lie, to steal, to murder, etc. -- about which there is no
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dispute; but why it is wrong to indulge in these acts, and right to
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||
perform others, is the business of ethical science to discover. But
|
||
here again the method that will be resorted to, with a view to
|
||
reply to this query, will depend upon the moral code believed in by
|
||
the person to whom the question is put. This method it is, in point
|
||
of fact, which constitutes what is called ethical science. On
|
||
looking over the history of moral philosophy, apart from
|
||
Secularism, we find such diversified and conflicting theories
|
||
advanced on this subject that it is frequently difficult to arrive
|
||
at the conclusion that there can be any certainty in the matter
|
||
whatever. Some hold, with Dr, Samuel Clarke, that virtue consists
|
||
in the fitness of things; others, with Adam Smith, discover its
|
||
basis in sympathy; others, with Dr. Reed, Dr. Thomas Brown, and
|
||
Dugald Stewart, contend for a moral sense; another class, with Miss
|
||
Cobbe, maintain that there is such a thing as intuitive morality;
|
||
others, with Paley, assert that virtue consists in doing good to
|
||
mankind in obedience to the will of God, and for the sake of
|
||
everlasting happiness; others, with Dr. Johnson, are content with
|
||
the will of God as a basis, without adding the motive introduced by
|
||
Paley; and yet others, with George Combe, fancy they have a key to
|
||
the whole thing in phrenology. Now, all these theories are
|
||
resolvable broadly into three great classes -- first, those who
|
||
regard the "will of God" as the basis of moral action; secondly,
|
||
|
||
|
||
Bank of Wisdom
|
||
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
|
||
7
|
||
|
||
SECULAR MORALITY.
|
||
|
||
those who contend that the true guide of man in morality is
|
||
something internal to himself -- call it conscience, moral sense,
|
||
intuition, or any other name that you please to give it; and,
|
||
thirdly, those who urge that moral science is, like other science,
|
||
to be discovered by the study of certain external facts. To the
|
||
latter of these the Utilitarian or Secular system belongs.
|
||
|
||
A small section of professing Christians have now given up the
|
||
will of God as the groundwork of their morality. This, however,
|
||
seems to us inconsistent with their faith, for the following
|
||
reasons: 1. If the Bible God be the father of all, surely to act in
|
||
accordance with his will should be the best guide in life. 2.
|
||
Christian morality is supposed to consist of the teachings of the
|
||
Bible, the alleged record of the will of God. 3. If God's will is
|
||
not the basis of Christian ethics, what is, from the Christian
|
||
standpoint? As Secularists, we cannot regulate our conduct by the
|
||
Bible records of God's will, inasmuch as that book is so thoroughly
|
||
contradictory in its interpretation of the said will. In one
|
||
passage the killing of human beings is forbidden by God, and in
|
||
another passage special instructions are given by the same being to
|
||
commit the prohibited crime. The same conflicting injunctions are
|
||
to be found in the "inspired word" in reference to adultery, lying,
|
||
retaliation, love, obedience to parents, forgiveness, individual
|
||
and general salvation, and many other acts which form part of the
|
||
conduct of human life.
|
||
|
||
As to the internal guide to morality, nothing can be more
|
||
clear than the fact that, even if man possesses a moral sense with
|
||
which he is born into this world, and which is inherent in his
|
||
nature, its teachings are not very distinct, and the code of law
|
||
based upon it is by no means definite. For not only do the
|
||
inhabitants of different countries vary considerably in regard to
|
||
the dictates of conscience, according to the nature of their
|
||
education, but the people of the same country will be found to be
|
||
by no means agreed as to what is right and what wrong, except in a
|
||
few well-marked deeds. One man feels a conscientious objection to
|
||
doing that which another man will positively believe to be a
|
||
praiseworthy act. In this, as in other matters, education is all-
|
||
potent over the mental character. It would indeed be difficult to
|
||
reconcile these facts with the existence of any intuitive moral
|
||
power.
|
||
|
||
Recognizing the difficulties and drawbacks pertaining to the
|
||
above theories, Secularists seek for a solution of this moral-
|
||
philosophy problem elsewhere -- that is to say, in the eternal
|
||
results of the acts themselves upon society, and in the effects
|
||
that invariably spring from them whenever they are performed. It
|
||
must be distinctly understood that we do not claim perfection for
|
||
our moral code; but we do believe that it is the best known at the
|
||
present time, and that it is free from many of the objectionable
|
||
features which belong to those theories which we, as Secularists,
|
||
cannot accept. It may be urged, as an objection to the external
|
||
test of the result of action, that it tends to make morality
|
||
shifting and dependent very much upon the circumstances existing at
|
||
the time. This is doubtless true; but it is of no value as an
|
||
argument against the doctrine of utility. For is not all that we
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
Bank of Wisdom
|
||
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
|
||
8
|
||
|
||
SECULAR MORALITY.
|
||
|
||
have to do with subject to the same law of variation? Fashions
|
||
change, customs alter, and even religions become considerably
|
||
modified by external circumstances. The following stanza in Lord
|
||
Byron's "Childe Harold" portrays a great truth: --
|
||
|
||
"Son of the morning, rise, approach you here;
|
||
Come, but molest not yon detenceless urn.
|
||
Look on this spot, a nation's sepulchre:
|
||
Abode of gods, whose shrines no longer burn.
|
||
Even gods must yield, religions take their turn;
|
||
'Twas Jove's, 'tis Mahomet's; and other creeds
|
||
Will rise with other years, till man shall learn
|
||
Vainly his incense soars, his victim bleeds;
|
||
Poor child of doubt and death, whose hope is built on
|
||
reeds!"
|
||
|
||
That Secular teachings are superior to those of orthodox
|
||
Christianity, the following brief contrast Will show. Christian
|
||
conduct is controlled by the ancient and supposed infallible rules
|
||
of the Bible; Secular action is regulated by modern requirements
|
||
and the scientific and philosophical discoveries of the practical
|
||
age in which we live. Christianity enjoins as an essential duty of
|
||
life to prepare to die; Secularism says, learn how to live
|
||
truthfully, honestly, and usefully, and you need not concern
|
||
yourself with the "how" to die. Christianity proclaims that the
|
||
world's redemption can only be achieved through the teachings of
|
||
one person; Secularism avows that such teachings are too
|
||
impracticable and limited in their influence for the attainment of
|
||
the object claimed, and that improvement, general and individual,
|
||
is the result of the brain-toiler and physical exertions of the
|
||
brave toilers of every country and every age who have labored for
|
||
human advancement. Christianity threatens punishment in another
|
||
world for the rejection of speculative views in this; Secularism
|
||
teaches that no penalty should follow the holding of sincere
|
||
opinions, as uniformity of belief is impossible. According to
|
||
Christianity, as taught in the churches and chapels, the approval
|
||
of God and the rewards of heaven are to be secured only through
|
||
faith in Jesus of Nazareth; whereas the philosophy of Secularism
|
||
enunciates that no merit should be attached to such faith, but that
|
||
fidelity to principle and good service to man should win the right
|
||
to participate in any advantages either in this or in any other
|
||
world.
|
||
|
||
|
||
**** ****
|
||
|
||
Reproducible Electronic Publishing can defeat censorship.
|
||
|
||
|
||
The Bank of Wisdom is always looking for more of these old,
|
||
hidden, suppressed and forgotten books that contain needed facts
|
||
and information for today. If you have such books, magazines,
|
||
newspapers, pamphlets, etc. please contact us, we need to give them
|
||
back to America. If you have such books please send us a list that
|
||
includes Title, Author, publication date, condition and price.
|
||
|
||
**** ****
|
||
|
||
|
||
Bank of Wisdom
|
||
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
|
||
9
|
||
|