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The Public-Access Computer Systems Review
Volume 4, Number 6 (1993) ISSN 1048-6542
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CONTENTS
PAPERS FROM THE NINTH TEXAS CONFERENCE ON LIBRARY AUTOMATION,
HOUSTON, TEXAS, APRIL 2-3, 1993, PART II
COMMUNICATIONS
Competencies for Electronic Information Services
By John Corbin (pp. 5-22)
To retrieve this file: GET CORBIN PRV4N6 F=MAIL
Electronic information services and the competencies required for
providing them are defined. The personal, basic, general, and
special competencies that will be needed are described. Both how
the competencies are acquired initially and how they will be
maintained thereafter (as well as responsibilities for gaining
and maintaining competencies) are also discussed.
Information Policy for Electronic Information Resources
By Mary Lou Goodyear (pp. 23-31)
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This paper examines three important information policy issues
related to electronic information resources: (1) access--the
ability to gain access to records held by governments or private
companies; (2) privacy--an individual's right to hold information
about him/herself secure; and (3) intellectual property--the
ownership of information.
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COLUMNS
Public-Access Provocations: An Informal Column
Reality Checks for Catalog Design
By Walt Crawford (pp. 32-35)
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The Public-Access Computer Systems Review
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Editor-in-Chief
Charles W. Bailey, Jr.
University Libraries
University of Houston
Houston, TX 77204-2091
(713) 743-9804
LIB3@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or LIB3@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet)
Associate Editors
Columns: Leslie Pearse, OCLC
Communications: Dana Rooks, University of Houston
Editorial Board
Ralph Alberico, University of Texas, Austin
George H. Brett II, Clearinghouse for Networked Information
Discovery and Retrieval
Steve Cisler, Apple Computer, Inc.
Walt Crawford, Research Libraries Group
Lorcan Dempsey, University of Bath
Nancy Evans, Pennsylvania State University, Ogontz
Charles Hildreth, READ, Ltd.
Ronald Larsen, University of Maryland
Clifford Lynch, Division of Library Automation,
University of California
David R. McDonald, Tufts University
R. Bruce Miller, University of California, San Diego
Paul Evan Peters, Coalition for Networked Information
Mike Ridley, University of Waterloo
Peggy Seiden, Skidmore College
Peter Stone, University of Sussex
John E. Ulmschneider, North Carolina State University
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Technical Support
Tahereh Jafari, University of Houston
Publication Information
Published on an irregular basis by the University Libraries,
University of Houston. Technical support is provided by the
Information Technology Division, University of Houston.
Circulation: 7,546 subscribers in 63 countries (PACS-L) and 2,142
subscribers in 51 countries (PACS-P).
Back issues are available from LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 (BITNET) or
LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet). To retrieve a cumulative
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The first three volumes of The Public-Access Computer Systems
Review are also available in book form from the American Library
Association's Library and Information Technology Association
(LITA). The price of each volume is $17 for LITA members and $20
for non-LITA members. All three volumes can be ordered as a set
for $45 (indicate that you want the PACS Review set, order number
7712-X). To order, contact: ALA Publishing Services, Order
Department, 50 East Huron Street, Chicago, IL 60611-2729, (800)
545-2433.
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The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic
journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other
computer networks. There is no subscription fee.
To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1
(BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says:
SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also
receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA
Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News.
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C)
1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All
Rights Reserved.
Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic
computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and
libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their
collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This
message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use
requires permission.
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Corbin, John. "Competencies for Electronic Information
Services." The Public-Access Computer Systems Review 4, no. 6
(1993): 5-22. To retrieve this file, send the following e-mail
message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU: GET
CORBIN PRV4N6 F=MAIL.
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Abstract
Electronic information services and the competencies required for
providing them are defined. The personal, basic, general, and
special competencies that will be needed are described. Both how
the competencies are acquired initially and how they will be
maintained thereafter (as well as responsibilities for gaining
and maintaining competencies) are also discussed.
1.0 Introduction
There are a number of factors having an impact on today's
libraries, one of the most important and pervasive of them being
technology. [1] Like it or not, the future of our libraries
depends on this technology--it is dictating or influencing how
our information is acquired, organized, stored, retrieved, and
disseminated; how our services and facilities are designed,
organized, staffed, and offered; and how our users seek, receive,
and use information. Technology also is altering our philosophy
from that of collecting information to providing access to
information; it is affecting our policies and procedures; and it
is requiring that librarians have skills and knowledge
unprecedented in our past. No aspect of our services,
facilities, or other resources is or will be unaffected by
technology.
Librarians are now faced, as never before, with the never-
ending struggle to attain and retain the competencies needed to
remain productive in their careers, thanks to a great extent to
technology. The obsolescence of skills and knowledge is directly
related to advances in technology, and those advances are
occurring at a mind-boggling rate.
This paper is about the specific competencies needed for
electronic information services, how the competencies are
acquired and maintained, and responsibilities for acquiring and
maintaining those competencies.
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2.0 Definition of an Electronic Information Service
An electronic information service is any library system whose
primary purpose is to provide access to, reference from, or
otherwise utilize information from one or more databases stored
electronically on online data storage media such as magnetic disk
or optical disc. The stored information could be bibliographic
or citation records, abstracts, full-text documents, numerical
data, image records, sound records, inventory records, personnel
records, financial records, or any other type of records that can
be stored in digital form.
Access to this information is under the control of one or
more computers, using nearby or distant microcomputer or other
input/output terminals. The information and the computer or
computers that control it may be in the library, in a computing
center serving the library, or in a nearby or distant
organization with which the library has cooperative or
contractual agreements. The library may own or control all the
information, part of it, or none of it. Although many
information seekers may never physically enter the library
building, a large number probably will, at least for many years
to come, to use its terminals and other facilities and to receive
human assistance or companionship. Also, for many years to come,
most libraries must cope with information in both electronic and
traditional formats. So, until all of a library's information is
in electronic form, its electronic information services must
retain links to non-electronic information handling systems,
particularly when document delivery is involved. The demand for
information available only in traditional formats will continue
far into the electronic information age, until some unknown point
in time, if ever.
Common examples of electronic information services providing
direct services to library clients include mediated searching of
remote databases, end-user searching of remote databases, and
end-user searching of local databases, including online public
access catalogs, CD-ROM citation databases, and community
information files. Examples of other electronic information
services providing indirect or internal services include
acquiring or creating information in electronic databases,
organizing and preserving electronic information, and providing
information and services to library management and staff as well
as to external governing authorities and agencies. There is a
commonality of competencies that are, or will be, required in
providing any of these electronic information services.
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3.0 Definition of a Competency
The definition of a competency is controversial. In earlier
times (a decade or so ago), competence was considered in terms of
the personal characteristics one had; competence was judged on
the basis of the quality of one's character, virtue, innate
abilities, and underlying attributes. Today, however, competence
is considered more in terms of skill-oriented behavior and
observable actions measured against quantitative standards; one's
competence is judged on the basis of whether or not learned
mental and physical tasks can be performed. Current thinking of
many is that competency can be taught, and competency can be
measured.
One current definition is that a competency is having the
capacity, skills, and knowledge to function in a particular way;
another is that a competency is what a person knows; while still
another is that a competency is evidence that one can produce
desirable outcomes. For this paper, a concatenation of these
definitions will be used; that is, a competency is defined as a
personal characteristic or trait, or what one should know or what
one should be able to do in order to achieve a desirable
objective or outcome. Fundamentally, competencies are not
aspects of jobs in electronic information services, but rather
characteristics of those who do the jobs best.
4.0 Types of Competencies Needed
It is appropriate to put all the competencies for electronic
information services into one list. But in this paper they are
separated into four groups: personal characteristics, basic
skills, general knowledge, and special knowledge. If it is felt
that this separation is not necessary, then the separate lists
can easily be merged into one, or separated into different
groupings.
4.1 Personal Characteristics
The first grouping is of personal characteristics. A personal
characteristic is a character virtue or trait of a person. I am
not a medical doctor, a psychologist, or a learning specialist,
so I can only surmise that most character traits are innate
within one, or at least taught and nurtured within one at an
early age. Probably, some traits can be learned, or at least
improved upon, through formal education and training, exposure to
others, and experience. There are seven personal characteristics
for electronic information services on this list. They are in no
particular order of importance.
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1. A Service Attitude
A service attitude is important because a sincere and
enthusiastic desire to help others in their quest for
information is needed if quality services are to be given
and if one is to be competent in this type of job. Being
user oriented requires one to be unselfish with one's
knowledge and talents in the effort to assist others in
identifying, locating, receiving, and evaluating information
that meets their needs. It is the satisfaction or reward
when that has been accomplished successfully. It also is
the desire to improve and do better the next time when one
fails to satisfy a client.
2. Effective Interpersonal Communication Ability
Effective interpersonal communication skills are critical
because the ability to listen effectively and to respond to
others with clarity, ease, warmth, openness, patience, and
empathy is also essential to providing quality services and
can mean the difference between being able to achieve
successful outcomes when serving clients through electronic
information services and failure to do so. This also
includes the ability to explain services, policies, and even
information easily and coherently to clients and others.
3. Social Sensitivity
Social sensitivity is essential when serving different sorts
of people. One must, with grace and ease, equally serve
people with differing information needs, levels of
background and knowledge, communication abilities, cultural
characteristics, and mental and physical abilities or
disabilities. Each person must be served with equal
enthusiasm and with the same assumption of importance as the
last.
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4. Flexibility
Flexibility is needed to adapt easily to the variability
between the information needs of differing clients, between
the differing ways of identifying, locating, and
transferring information, and between the changing
requirements of users. Being able to move easily and
quickly from one situation to another is important, whether
it be working directly with clients or behind the scenes.
5. Time Consciousness
Time consciousness is essential when providing timely
services, particularly when a service is heavily used and
one is rushed to serve a number of clients rapidly or
simultaneously. While one must serve each person equally,
one must organize one's time effectively and not spend
inordinate amounts of time on some assignments to the
detriment of others that might be just as important.
6. Curiosity
Curiosity is important because a wondering mind is always
essential when seeking information, whether it is for
oneself or for clients. Having curiosity enables one to use
an electronic information service with the anticipation that
something new will be learned, even though you are helping
other people rather than yourself. Being curious also
enables one to try new approaches to locating information or
to investigate new possible sources of information. Having
curiosity also makes life much more interesting.
7. A Desire to Perform Well
Finally, a desire to perform well is a sign of someone who
is unwilling to give poor service or produce shoddy work,
and who wants to do their best day in and day out,
regardless of the assignment or the conditions. This
characteristic is important to quality service and to
quality job performance.
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Other personal characteristics, such as self confidence,
judgement, team participation, and honesty, could easily be
placed on the list also. Sufficient examples have been provided
to give a sense of what is needed for effective electronic
information services.
4.2 Basic Skills
The second group of competencies is the basic skills that one
needs in order to work effectively in electronic information
services. Basic skills involve the use of one's knowledge and
abilities effectively and readily to execute or perform specific
learned mental and physical tasks with dexterity and
coordination. There are four particular basic skills on this
list for electronic information services. Again, they are not in
any particular order of importance.
1. Information Analysis and Evaluation Skills
High on the list of basic skills is capable information
analysis and evaluation skills. Skill at determining
the precise information needs of library users,
summarizing or translating their needs into strategies
for identifying and locating needed information, and
analyzing and evaluating the retrieved information to
determine whether or not it meets the needs of clients
is essential if service outcomes are to be acceptable.
Without these skills, incorrect information can be
retrieved, resulting in dissatisfied clients.
2. Computer Use Skills
Also high on the list of basic skills is effortless
computer use skills. One should be able to use a
computer with confidence and ease, to the extent that
clients and others are not able to observe nervousness,
timidity, hesitation, or tenseness on your part when
you are handling the equipment or using systems. For
example, one:
A. Can log onto, adjust, log off, and turn off a
standard computer terminal, or boot a
microcomputer, react correctly to software
prompts and messages, and shut down the
systems safely and correctly after use.
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B. Can use the cursor control keys, the numeric
keypad, and other special keys such as the
function keys, control, escape, and
alternate, with facility.
C. Can locate and retrieve files or software in
storage.
D. Can touch type with a reasonable data entry
speed (say, 50 wpm).
3. Network Use and Navigation Skills
Also on the list of basic skills are effective network
use and navigation skills. For example, one:
A. Can enter, move about in, utilize features
of, and exit a local area network, BITNET, or
the Internet.
B. Can handle modem and other communications
equipment and communications software and can
connect and disconnect from the public-
switched network, value-added networks, and
other specialized telecommunications links.
These skills are essential when communicating
electronically with clients, identifying and locating
requested information through networks, transferring
information around networks and into the library, and
delivering information to clients. Most electronic
information services of tomorrow, and even many of
today, will rely on a blend of information stored in
local databases as well as in databases located
anywhere around the world.
4. Word Processing Skills
Good word processing skills are also essential. One
should know at least one standard word processing
system, such as WordPerfect. This is fundamental to
understanding and using electronic mail systems and in
preparing other online communications with clients,
staff, and others, and other systems where information
is created and/or manipulated.
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4.3 General Knowledge
The third category of competencies for electronic information
services is general knowledge, which is defined as an
understanding of general facts, principles, and other information
not specific to providing electronic information services, but
nonetheless essential background knowledge needed in order for
someone to best perform that job. Remember, however, that
competence is not based on the knowledge one has, but on how that
knowledge is applied to electronic information services. This
general knowledge is not specific to any particular institution,
library, or any job.
An endless number of competencies can be placed in this
category, but twelve of the most important for effective
electronic information services will suffice for this paper,
again in no particular order of importance.
1. The Nature and Creation of Information
On the list of general knowledge is an understanding of
the nature and creation of information. This includes
the principles of what constitutes information,
representation of information for machine acceptance,
the various types of information, the sources of
information, the various formats in which information
can be found, and the process of creating or generating
information. This background knowledge can be useful
when dealing with any aspect of an electronic
information service.
2. Information Storage and Retrieval
An understanding of the general principles, techniques,
and methods of information storage and retrieval is on
the list of general knowledge essential for electronic
information services. This includes the process of
entering information into files; the various ways that
information can be organized in storage; cataloging,
indexing, and abstracting of information for storage
and retrieval; query formulation and execution;
relevance of retrieved information; security of
information in storage; and the processes involved in
information storage and retrieval.
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3. Information Transfer
An understanding of how information is communicated,
interchanged, or transferred from one individual to
another and from one computer site to another is
essential. This includes the forms in which
information can be transferred, the various methods for
information transfer, the equipment needed for
information transfer, and the common communications
links that are used in the process.
4. Information Networks
Closely related to the previous item is an
understanding of the principles of information
networks, which are the communications links that are
cooperatively organized and maintained between
libraries and other organization for the purposes of
sharing informational resources and transferring
information. An understanding of why people and
organizations need to cooperate, why cooperation
underlies networks and networking, the benefits and
limitations of cooperation, how networks are organized
and utilized, and the politics and economics of
networks and networking is important to understand some
of the mechanisms for electronic information services.
5. Information Systems
Knowledge of the basics of information systems within
libraries and other organizations is next on the list.
This includes an understanding of what systems are
essential, their goals or purposes, their essential
components or elements, and how they work or don't
work. This also includes the application of computers
and other technology in support of information systems.
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6. Information Policy
An understanding of information policy on
international, national, state, and local levels is
critical. This includes official, semi-official, or
unofficial policies regarding how information is
generated, retained, disseminated, and accessed,
including who has access to information. This
knowledge will be helpful when identifying, locating,
and accessing information and when answering clients'
questions about the availability of information, how
information can be used, and why some information
cannot be obtained or obtained easily.
7. Information Copyright and Related Issues
Also essential is knowledge about information copyright
and related issues. Copyright and related legal rights
and privileges of information creators, publishers,
performers, and owners are some of the most pressing
problems facing us in the electronic information age.
Until we can solve some of these problems, electronic
information services will be restricted in many
different ways, particularly when accessing information
in other libraries. This knowledge is useful when
dealing with everything from designing to managing
these services.
8. Information Privacy and Ethics
Knowledge of information privacy and ethics is
essential when providing or using electronic
information services. This includes the basic laws
underlying the rights of individuals to privacy and how
that relates to providing electronic information
services. The fear that someone is monitoring
everything we transmit using electronic information
systems is a troublesome issue that can restrict the
free flow of information, particularly when dealing
with controversial information.
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9. Computing
Knowledge of the general principles of computing is
next on the list. This would include an understanding
how computers work, their capabilities and limitations,
and their role in electronic information services.
Understanding how computers store, retrieve, process,
and communicate information underlies all activities to
do with electronic information services, including the
use of information networks.
10. Organizational Theory
Also on the list is an understanding of the basic
principles of organizational theory, because knowledge
of how organizations are organized, staffed, and
managed gives insight into how they work. Knowing this
can help in maneuvering through the intricacies of
one's own library and of other institutions when
seeking information or working with electronic
information services.
11. Information Standards
Knowledge of the standards affecting the indexing,
transfer, and other aspects of handling information and
of the technology and communications facilities that
are used is helpful when working on a daily basis with
electronic information services. The reasons why
electronic information systems are organized or
operated lie in the desire to adhere to acceptable
standards that make our systems universally compatible,
or as compatible as possible.
12. Information Technology Trends
Last on the list of general knowledge essential for
electronic information services is an understanding of
information technology trends. What new ways of
storing and transferring electronic information are
under development? What emerging technologies possibly
might affect the library and its electronic information
services in the near or distant future? This knowledge
can be helpful in keeping the perspective that
electronic information services are constantly
evolving, and that change and managing change is a part
of electronic information services.
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4.4 Specialized Knowledge
The final category of competencies is the specialized knowledge
needed for specific electronic information services being
offered, which is expected of a specialist in the particular area
of librarianship. There are ten competencies on this list,
again in no special order.
1. The Clients With Which One Works and Their Information
Needs
A good working knowledge of the clients with which one
works and their specific information needs is
important. This includes knowing what types of
information clients need, the nature of that
information, when they want the information, and how
they want it delivered. This also includes their
thoughts on what information should be permanently
retained locally and what can be obtained at the time
of need from other libraries and information centers.
2. The Clients' Discipline(s) and Relevant Literature
Knowledge of the clients' discipline or disciplines and
its literature is essential. If one does not have
formal training in the same discipline as one's clients
for an electronic information service, then one
certainly must have a good working knowledge of the
field and its literature, to give one credibility when
working with the clients. Someone without the proper
credentials might not be readily accepted by clients.
3. The Specific Electronic Information Service Being
Offered
One should have a thorough understanding of the
specific electronic information service being offered.
One must understand the purpose or function of the
service, its goals and objectives, the nature and scope
of information in its database, how the information is
organized, how the information is retrieved, how the
service is organized and managed, how the results can
be delivered, the procedures and policies for its use,
and a little about its history. This also might
include knowledge of the licensing agreement for the
service and the economics of its purchase or licensing
and other associated costs.
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4. Use of the Specific Electronic Information Service With
Which One Works
Closely related to the previous special competency is a
facility in using the specific electronic information
service with which one works. One must be able to use
the service with ease, to explain its use to others,
and to assist others in its use. This is at the heart
of special knowledge. Clients will forgive you for not
knowing their discipline, if only you can obtain
information for them or help them in obtaining
information.
5. Other Electronic Information Services That Supplement
or Complement the One Being Offered
Knowledge of other electronic information services that
supplement or complement the one being offered also can
be very helpful, since it probably is not typical for
any one electronic service to yield all the information
clients want in every case.
6. What Resources Are Available Locally
One must know what information resources are available
locally when using an electronic information service.
All or most of the information retrieved for clients
from an electronic information service might be
deliverable from in-house or external computer files.
But probably for many years to come, the demand for
information available only in traditional print format
will continue. That demand will gradually diminish
until it reaches zero or comes close to zero at some
unknown future point in time. In the meantime, one
must still know what resources are available locally.
7. Where and How to Obtain Resources Not Available Locally
But still, one must know where and how to obtain
resources not available locally. While there are
software systems that assist in locating information in
electronic databases around the world, use of these
systems must always be supplemented with personal
knowledge of additional sources or acquaintance with
people who know where information can be located.
+ Page 18 +
8. Document Delivery Options
Knowing local document delivery options is also
important. One must know what options are available to
clients, how they work, how to use them, and their
costs.
9. Evaluation of Information Received From an Electronic
Information Service Being Offered
Knowing how to evaluate information received from an
electronic information service being offered is
becoming critical. Many clients are overwhelmed by the
vast amount of information that an electronic
information service can yield, and want a librarian to
filter through it and pick out the important from the
peripheral. The quality of service received, in the
eyes of many clients, might be how well the librarian
selected the information that is given them.
10. Evaluation of the Satisfaction of Clients With an
Electronic Information Service
The final type of special knowledge is how to evaluate
the satisfaction of clients with an electronic
information service. This is, of course, related to
the previous competency. Satisfaction can be evaluated
through use of formal and informal interviews,
questionnaires, and surveys.
5.0 How Competencies Are Acquired and Maintained
Having a degree from the most prestigious library school in the
country does not necessarily or automatically ensure competency
for electronic information services. The necessary competencies
most likely will be acquired from a combination of sources, only
one of which will be library school. Responsibility for
acquiring and maintaining competency for work in or with
electronic information services has to be a shared one.
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5.1 Formal Education and Training Programs
First, competency for electronic information services can be
obtained through formal education and training programs.
Completion of a formal education and/or training program leading
to a certificate or degree is one way of initially acquiring
basic skills, general knowledge, and some specialized knowledge.
This could include high school, technical school, community
college, and senior college or university degree programs.
Sometimes, these same institutions offer refresher courses or
programs designed to upgrade skills and knowledge once a
certificate or degree is earned. Information is usually
presented in an organized and succinct manner designed to
facilitate learning; the opportunity to interact within a group
of peers is provided; and evaluation of knowledge gained is
evaluated through testing.
It is usually the responsibility of the individual to want
to gain competency using this approach and to initiate and
complete the process. However, a library can give unpaid leaves
of absences for its employees to complete a formal program on a
full-time basis and/or allow employees opportunities to set
flexible work schedules in order to attend classes. Of course,
many employees attend classes at night and on weekends in order
to complete a formal education or training program, either for an
initial professional degree or to upgrade or gain new skills and
knowledge.
5.2 On-The-Job Training
All skills and knowledge learned through formal education and
training programs must be reinforced and enhanced through on-the-
job-training. Also, most of the specialized skills for
electronic information services will most likely be learned on
the job, and one's initial orientation and subsequent on-the-job
training before one begins work with a service is one of the
primary ways competencies are gained. It is the responsibility
of the library to provide initial on-the-job training for
electronic information services and follow-up training when
necessary.
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5.3 Self Education
Self education when acquiring and maintaining competencies for
electronic information services should not be overlooked. By
studying textbooks, training and reference manuals, procedure and
policy manuals, and other documentation, one can learn the basics
of an electronic service. This must be followed up with, or
accompanied by, other methods such as experience if it is to be
effective.
5.4 Apprenticeship
Coupled with on-the-job training and self education is
apprenticeship with a colleague or a mentor who is assigned, or
assumes, responsibility for working with someone new to an
electronic information service. This person can provide the
initial and follow-up training, then enable one to master a job
under his or her tutelage. The person can correct one's
mistakes, provide a model for good work habits and proper
techniques, and reinforce the learning experience. This
technique has been long neglected in this country, but it still
is a viable way of learning, even in this electronic age. There
can be a formal apprenticeship program that is official policy of
a library, or it can be completely voluntary on the part of the
mentor and the apprentice.
5.5 Experience
Experience is one of the best teachers when learning or acquiring
competency for electronic information services, based upon one or
more of the other approaches just mentioned. One will never be
truly competent in an electronic information service until this
experience is gained. Through experience, one gains self
confidence, agility, and speed and begins to add to one's
effectiveness in a job.
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5.6 Continuing Education Events
Many skills and some knowledge learned through formal programs
tend to become rapidly obsolete when dealing with electronic
information services. Continuing education provides one of the
best ways of upgrading skills and knowledge as well as of keeping
abreast of trends and issues in the field. Continuing education
events include workshops, seminars, short courses,
demonstrations, and other presentations where one can learn new
skills and knowledge and upgrade or enhance old skills and
knowledge. Continuing education is a joint responsibility of the
library and the individual. The library must either design and
provide the events, or provide opportunities to its employees to
attend events, either at full or partial library expense.
6.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, anyone who expects to manage, use, or provide
services from an electronic information service effectively must
have a number of competencies, including some personal
characteristics, some specialized basic skills, general knowledge
that provides a base for the services, and some very specialized
knowledge directly related to services that are offered. These
competencies will be acquired in a variety of ways, and most of
them must be updated continually if one is to remain an effective
employee. Responsibility for acquiring and maintaining the
competencies in tip-top shape will be a shared responsibility
between the individual, the library in which he or she works, and
multiple external organizations such as professional societies
and associations, consortia, vendors, and others. Those of you
who neglect the maintenance of your competencies, or acquiring
them in the first place, will find yourself being less effective
on the job.
Notes
1. This paper was presented at the Ninth Texas Conference on
Library Automation, Houston, Texas, 2 April 1993.
Bibliography
1. Goleman, Daniel. "The New Competency Tests: Matching the
Right People to the Right Jobs." Psychology Today 15 (January
1981): 35-46.
2. Pottinger, Paul S., and Joan Goldsmith, eds. Defining and
Measuring Competence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1979.
+ Page 22 +
About the Author
John Corbin, Professor, School of Library and Information
Sciences, University of North Texas, Box 13796, Denton, TX 76203.
Internet: CORBIN@LIS.UNT.EDU.
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+ Page 32 +
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Public-Access Provocations: An Informal Column
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Crawford, Walt. "Reality Checks for Catalog Design." The
Public-Access Computer Systems Review 4, no. 6 (1993): 32-35. To
retrieve this file, send the following e-mail message to
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You're probably not an online catalog designer--but, given the
flexibility of today's and tomorrow's systems, you might
influence the design of an online catalog now or in the future.
If that's true, here's a suggested change in your work life once
such a design is in use:
At least once a month, spend at least an hour or two
studying current transaction logs for the
catalog--preferably, reviewing whole sessions from beginning
to end.
I'd almost say that this practice should be required for any
catalog or user interface designer: periodically examine how real
users actually use the system. Library researchers call it
Transaction Log Analysis (TLA); I call it a reality check for
your design theories.
Session Analysis, Not Statistical Analysis
Most TLA work is statistical and can be quite useful (although
probably not as useful as its proponents suggest). If the
transaction logs and statistical analyses are well designed, the
reports will show which indexes are most heavily used, which
wonderful special features aren't used much at all, and whether
anyone asks for help. All useful information, to be sure, but
not the same as end-to-end session analysis.
+ Page 33 +
Session analysis shows you how users actually cope with the
system's design. Users make mistakes in every system (even
menu-driven ones that mask the errors). Does the system's
feedback instruct the user so that the next command is
reasonable--and does the user retain that information for the
next sequence? Do most users really do a large number of
searches using the same index, or are they likely to follow a
strategy through several different indexes? When do users appear
to become frustrated--and why? Are there distinct differences
between quick-search users and research users (and can you tell
the difference)? Can someone start a session, complete a search,
display the results, and leave in two minutes--and is that a
reasonable goal for your system?
If you have an open mind, and if the catalog's basic design
is flexible, session analysis can yield improvements in the
design. If you see common traps, you may see ways to avoid them,
or at least to offer specific help. It's enormously satisfying
to make design changes (or just changes in help text) based on
session analysis, then see particular sources of error disappear
in later sessions.
The Awful Truth
Session analysis can be depressing, and probably will be at
times, no matter how good the design is. You'll probably find
that some of the users (perhaps 2-5%) are incorrigible: they
won't read what's on the screen, they won't pay attention to any
help, and they will keep repeating the same errors no matter what
you do. Some repetitive errors call out for system changes--but
some sessions can only be attributed to abusive users.
Session analysis shows the truth of a system: how people
actually work with it. It isn't always pretty, and you can find
yourself wanting to tell the phantom user the one tip that would
cut through their confusion--but then, you may find that the
system is already showing them that tip, and they simply ignore
it. That, incidentally, is one of the problems with remote
session analysis by outside researchers: if you don't know how
the system operates, you may not be able to do a valid analysis.
+ Page 34 +
Not Just Spouting Off
Some previous Public-Access Provocations may have the appearance
of theoretical pronouncements from someone not actually doing
this stuff. Not this time. I've been doing exactly what I
recommend since late August 1993, and intend to continue. I
served as principal designer for Eureka, RLG's patron-oriented
search service; we currently log 25% of sessions (fully
maintaining user anonymity); and each week we print out those
anonymous logs. I've been going through those logs each week to
categorize erroneous commands (a process that is leading to
changes in the design) and doing full session analysis at least
once a month.
Admittedly, Eureka is a functionally rich design, making
session analysis both more difficult and more useful--but the
lessons I'm learning appear to be lessons almost any online
system could teach. Yes, the process can be irritating and
frustrating, but it's also extremely enlightening. I grade each
session based on my sense of what the user was trying to do--and
I'm a tough grader: if they wind up frustrated, I assume it's the
system's fault, even if it's clear that they had no interest in
using the system correctly.
Library researchers look at TLA as something that should
lead to published results. Will I be publishing the results of
this ongoing session analysis or the underlying statistical
analysis? Possibly, eventually, but that's not the purpose. The
purpose, and the best use of session analysis, is much more
direct: to see how these reality checks can lead to better system
design.
And, to be sure, to keep system designers humble. Which we
all richly deserve to be.
More About TLA
Library Hi Tech 11, no. 2 (1993) contains a special theme section
on transaction log analysis: 7 articles in 70 pages. I disagree
with a significant amount of what's said, but the section does
provide a good introduction to the field.
+ Page 35 +
About the Author
Walt Crawford, The Research Libraries Group, Inc., 1200 Villa
Street, Mountain View CA 94041-1100. Internet:
BR.WCC@RLG.STANFORD.EDU.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic
journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other
computer networks. There is no subscription fee.
To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1
(BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says:
SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also
receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA
Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News.
This article is Copyright (C) 1993 by Walt Crawford. All
Rights Reserved.
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C)
1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All
Rights Reserved.
Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic
computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and
libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their
collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This
message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use
requires permission.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
+ Page 23 +
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Goodyear, Mary Lou. "Information Policy for Electronic
Information Resources." The Public-Access Computer Systems
Review 4, no. 6 (1993): 23-31. To retrieve this file, send the
following e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1 or
LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU: GET GOODYEAR PRV4N6 F=MAIL.
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1.0 Introduction
The making of public policy has often been compared to the making
of sausage. [1] It may turn out being very good, but you don't
want to watch the process. Of all our current public policy
areas, information policy is probably the most confusing and
complex. All levels of government participate in the regulation
of access to information of all types. The array of issues and
the complexity of laws makes this area one of the most difficult
to study.
Information is a basic resource for all human beings, and it
is as important to us as food, good air, and rest. It is the
basis for all our decisions. Information is needed for personal
decisions as minor as when to go to bed to as significant as
buying a house. Information is also the basis for running the
organizations in which we work. Policies concerning information,
both governmental and private, have the potential to have a
profound effect on society.
It is "intelligence" information which enables President
Clinton to make decisions concerning foreign policy; it is social
information which allows the federal government to make decisions
concerning education programs; and it is information about all
aspects of health care that is consuming Hillary Rodham Clinton
and congressional policy makers. Governmental policies can
provide wide access to information or restrict access. All
public policy is made on the basis of the information available
at the time of the decision. Therefore, information policy
provides the basis, or the support, for all other public policy.
The availability of information has made the crucial difference
in many public policy decisions. Policies on the creation,
collection, storage, use, and dissemination of information form
the basis of information policy. It is this attribute, the all
encompassing nature of information, that makes it so difficult
and complex. The formation of information policy is one of the
most important aspects of public policy today.
+ Page 24 +
2.0 Changes in the Information Environment
Information is the basis for communication, both personal and
scholarly. Therefore, policies governing access to information
can have dramatic affects on the scholarly communication process.
For example, governmental policies concerning classified
information have partially determined what topics military
historians can choose to explore. In truth, access to
information determines many choices that scholars make concerning
what to study. If access is not provided, study cannot proceed.
As we move to the use of electronic information, the
relationship between information, the producer, and the consumer
is changing. Spender proposes that each information medium has
its own social structure. [2] As communication has moved from
verbal to print to electronic the relationships between writer
and reader and between lay citizen and scholar have changed.
When the means of communication were strictly oral, the
exchange of information required direct contact. Those who were
the repositories of information were the authorities. They
preserved the knowledge base for society and chose to whom
knowledge was communicated. These authorities were the authors
and users of information, so they held great power in society.
When writing and printing came into common use, this power
relationship changed. Through the printed page, information
could be exchanged without direct contact between people. Paper
proved to be both durable and transportable. Printing gave
information to the masses, allowing education to become
widespread. However, authoring essentially remained with
scholars and professionals. Printing was, and still is, an
expensive investment. Access was primarily given to those with
appropriate education and credentials--giving them the authority
to communicate information.
With the advent of electronic information, the relationship
between the author and the user of information is changing
further. Electronic information can, and does, move anywhere at
anytime. A mere change in the way information is stored, from
paper to electronic, has produced a vastly significant change--
geography is no longer important. The place where a piece of
information is stored has become less relevant.
+ Page 25 +
Information used to be stored on printed pieces of paper.
Pieces of paper can only be at one place at one time--essentially
controlling access to that information. Physical access was
required for intellectual access; in order to read the
information it had to be physically in your hand. Today,
information stored in electronic form can be easily accessed from
thousands of miles away. Exact copies can be made without the
owner of the original losing his or her copy or even knowing it
has been shared with another person.
This reality has made the movement of information very
difficult to control. Access to information has vastly increased
for those who know how to gain this access. The ability to
control access to information, for any reason, is challenged in a
way without precedent in our history. This ease of access has
changed the relationship between author and user. It is much
more difficult for the author to restrict access. Control of
information is shifting from the author to the user. In
addition, it is also easier to become an author. Many electronic
networks provide free access to information, both as a user and
an author, making it easy for authors to add their thoughts to
the knowledge base. The increased availability of information in
electronic formats has substantially decreased control over
information as a whole.
The laws that form the basis of our information policy have
not kept pace with this vast technological change. Setting
public policy in this area poses a daunting challenge, even for
information professionals. There currently exists a vast complex
of laws, regulations, directives, statements, policies and
judicial interpretations concerning information. Given this
complexity, how does an information professional balance all the
competing needs? How can we organize our thinking about
information policy?
3.0 A Framework for Information Policy
Given the complexity of information policy, a system to organize
our thinking would be a valuable asset. Overman and Cahill [3]
have provided a framework which can be used to study information
policy issues. This paper will cover three of the information
policy values defined by Overman and Cahill. These three values
are: (1) access--the ability to gain access to records held by
governments or private companies; (2) privacy--an individual's
right to hold information about him/herself secure; and (3)
intellectual property--the ownership of information. These three
values comprise the major components for the current information
policy debate.
+ Page 26 +
3.1 Access
There is nothing more basic to the relationship between
government and citizens than the right of access to information.
The free flow of information is essential to the citizenry's
ability to participate in democratic government. This principle
has been supported since the beginning of our country. [4] It
has been generally agreed that information access is a citizen
entitlement, particularly in this information age. [5]
As a public policy concept, access has been widely accepted.
At the federal level, access policies have been put in place
through broad legislation, such as the Freedom of Information
Act, and by more detailed legislation relating to specific types
of federal records. At the state level, open records laws exist
that guarantee access to records kept by state and local
jurisdictions. Two states have an access guarantee in their
constitutions, and all states and the District of Columbia have
open records laws. [6]
Librarians stand at the focal point for support of the free
flow of information; access is a fundamental value for the
profession. However, there are other information policy
considerations which must be balanced with open and free access.
One of those considerations is the need for government to
function effectively. Experience has taught us that openness
within a democratic system does not always bring effective
decision making. Therefore, most access laws limit disclosure by
providing for exceptions to open records and meetings.
At both levels of government, information can be withheld
for reasons of effective government. The most common example on
the federal level is limiting access for reasons of national
security. At the state level, legislatures have attempted to
balance access values with the need for secrecy in the effective
functioning of government. Within open meetings laws, executive
sessions can be authorized when premature publicity of the topic
would be detrimental to the interest of the public at large by
revealing information to individuals who might profit at the
public's expense. For example, real estate transactions are
often done in executive session so as to maximize the public's
profit from public lands. Most access laws also recognize the
need for limited access due to personal privacy, the topic of the
next section.
+ Page 27 +
3.2 Privacy
Privacy, the right of an individual to hold personal information
private, is also thought to be grounded in democratic governance.
Privacy can be defined as an integral part of freedom; an
important aspect of the ability to secure autonomy. This "right"
is strongly supported within the Constitution. [7] Privacy has
become an increasingly important concept in the information
policy area. As access values have been implemented into law,
the concern for privacy has grown.
At the federal level, there is strong court-interpreted
support for a "right of privacy." The most comprehensive privacy
legislation at the federal level is the Privacy Act of 1974.
There is also federal legislation dealing with specific types of
records, such as financial records in banks and other financial
institutions. At the state level, there is stronger legislative
support of privacy. Eleven states have a constitutional
provision guaranteeing privacy, and six states have a statutory
law protecting privacy. [8] Privacy is also recognized in open
meetings and open records legislation.
The information policy values of access and privacy are both
important to democratic governance. The balance struck between
these values is one of the most difficult aspects of current
information policy. The transition to electronic information has
made policy making in this area even more important. As noted
above, electronic information is more difficult to control. The
tilt of legislation at both the federal and state level has been
in favor of access, leaving privacy issues more often to court
interpretation. [9] The lack of strong legislative guarantees,
combined with the difficulty of enforcement has created an
information policy environment where privacy is far from
guaranteed. [10] Threats to privacy have become a concern for
the general public. In a recent Harris poll, more than two-
thirds of the public agreed that computers are a threat to
personal privacy. [11] Widespread privacy violations have been
reported on a consistent basis, most recently in a well
documented book by Jeffrey Rothfeder. [12] He concludes that the
electronic information kept by government and private business
are readily available. If privacy is to be guaranteed, it is
clear that information policy must change. Part of that change
must be clearer definition of who owns and controls pieces of
information.
+ Page 28 +
3.3 Intellectual Property
Ownership of information, or intellectual property, is an
increasingly important aspect of information policy. The
government has a substantial interest in protecting free
expression by guaranteeing that citizens can use ideas for their
own benefit and the benefit of others. At the same time,
government has an interest in guaranteeing the people's welfare
by encouraging intellectual advancement that benefits society.
In a capitalistic economy, this advancement is accomplished by
allowing the ownership of expression. Limiting access to
information by providing for ownership fulfills this public
policy need.
Most intellectual property laws exist at the federal level.
Copyright law protects the expression of ideas in any form, such
as literary, musical, dramatic, graphic, and ornamental works;
however, ideas that have not yet found expression are excluded.
In essence, the idea itself is not protected, but the expression
of the idea is. Inventions which perform some useful function
are protected through federal patent law. Abstract ideas are not
patentable; a patent requires actual application.
Trade secret law, which exists at the state level, is the
third component of intellectual property law. These laws protect
information that has independent economic value from being
generally known and from benefiting anyone other than the
originator. Thirty-nine states have trade secret laws. [13]
All three components of intellectual property law combine to
comprise a fairly strong system of protection. However,
electronic information poses a significant challenge to the
current law. Software programs fall in between copyright and
patent protection. They are expressions of ideas, and yet hold
great utility. Legislators have not yet been able to revise
current law to adequately protect such intellectual property.
The courts have had a difficult time sorting out the issues of
ownership given the inadequate law. This situation has left
software producers in a difficult position. With the rapid
change in technology, this type of intellectual property tends to
have a short life span. Many software producers are moving
toward trade secret law to ensure protection of their electronic
intellectual property, which appears to afford them better
protection in the short term.
+ Page 29 +
4.0 Conclusion
This brief outline provides a basic framework for issues
concerning information policy. These issues are critical to the
future of the information professions as well as to the daily
functioning of all citizens. The choices we make affect
governance, personal privacy, and the scholarly communication
process. Given the complexity of these issues, it is difficult
to see how one might choose between the options.
Given the complexity of information policy, a beginning
might be the statement of basic principles. There are three
statements of principles that are useful tools in deciding
information policy issues.
The most comprehensive set of principles dealing with
personal information was issued by the Organization for Economic
Co-Operation and Development. [14] These principles provide
limits on the collection of personal data as well as its use.
They also discuss the rights of an individual to challenge the
accuracy of collected data. While these principles have been
used as a model for the federal privacy act and legislation at
the state level, the United States is far from guaranteeing
privacy as proposed by these principles.
The National Commission on Libraries and Information Science
has approved a set of principles which "reaffirms that the
information policies of the U.S. government are based on the
freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, and on the recognition
of public information as a national resource to be developed and
preserved in the public interest." [15] These principles discuss
access rights, privacy issues, accuracy of information, and cost
issues. These principles are an excellent beginning toward
forming a more comprehensive set of access principles.
EDUCOM has issued a Bill of Rights which defines information
policy principles specifically related to electronic information.
[16] These principles cover individual and institutional rights
and responsibilities dealing with access, privacy, and ownership
issues. Also included are freedom of speech issues and issues
surrounding learning to use electronic resources. Cost factors
are also included as an issue for institutions to consider.
These principles provide a basis on which an individual
institution or library could write an information policy.
Ultimately, it is responsible government and responsible
citizens who must decide the right use of information and the
right balance between access, privacy, and ownership. The
determination of information policy will affect all information
institutions and professionals in coming years. The decisions
made are likely to affect the most democratic of these
institutions--the library. It is vitally important for
information professionals to become well informed and active in
the formation of information policy.
+ Page 30 +
Notes
1. This paper was presented at the Ninth Texas Conference on
Library Automation, Houston, Texas, 3 April 1993.
2. Dale Spender, "Electronic Scholarship: Perform or Perish?"
in Woman, Information Technology, and Scholarship, eds. H. Jeanie
Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, and Maureen Ebben (Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois, 1993), 15-19.
3. E. Samuel Overman and Anthony G. Cahill, "Information Policy:
A Study of Values in the Policy Process," Policy Studies Review
9, no. 4 (1990): 803-818.
4. James Madison, "Letter to W. T. Barry, 4 August 1822," in The
Writings of James Madison, ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Putnam,
1910), 142-144.
5. Dennis J. Reynolds, "The Bill of Rights and Beyond: Citizen
Entitlement and Information Access in an Electronic Age," in
Rights and Access to Electronic Information, ed. Dennis J.
Reynolds (Chicago: Library and Information Technology
Association, 1992), 3-31.
6. Mary Lou Goodyear, "Information and Democracy: A Study of the
Relationship Between State Information Policies and Democratic
Governance" (Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado, Denver, 1993).
7. Ruth Gavison, "Privacy and the Limits of the Law," in
Philosophical Dimensions of Privacy: An Anthology, ed. Ferdinand
David Schoeman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 346-
402.
8. Mary Lou Goodyear, "Information and Democracy: A Study of the
Relationship Between State Information Policies and Democratic
Governance."
9. Ibid.
10. Rita Kidd, "Public Information Gatekeepers," Government
Technology 6, no. 4 (1993): 20.
11. Rosita Thomas, "Privacy in the Age of Computers," CRS Review
11, no. 1 (1990): 8.
12. Jeffrey Rothfeder, Privacy For Sale: How Computerization Has
Made Everyone's Private Life an Open Secret (New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1992).
+ Page 31 +
13. Mary Lou Goodyear, "Information and Democracy: A Study of
the Relationship Between State Information Policies and
Democratic Governance."
14. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development,
Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of
Personal Data (Paris: OECD, 1981).
15. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science,
"Principles of Public Information," in Citizen Rights and Access
to Electronic Information, ed. Dennis J. Reynolds. (Chicago:
Library and Information Technology Association, 1992), 175.
16. Frank Connolly and Sally Webster, "Bill of Rights and
Responsibilities for Electronic Learners," EDUCOM Review 28, no.
3 (1993): 24-27.
About the Author
Mary Lou Goodyear, Interim Associate Director, Sterling C. Evans
Library, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-5000.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is an electronic
journal that is distributed on BITNET, Internet, and other
computer networks. There is no subscription fee.
To subscribe, send an e-mail message to LISTSERV@UHUPVM1
(BITNET) or LISTSERV@UHUPVM1.UH.EDU (Internet) that says:
SUBSCRIBE PACS-P First Name Last Name. PACS-P subscribers also
receive three electronic newsletters: Current Cites, LITA
Newsletter, and Public-Access Computer Systems News.
This article is Copyright (C) 1993 by Mary Lou Goodyear.
Rights Reserved.
The Public-Access Computer Systems Review is Copyright (C)
1993 by the University Libraries, University of Houston. All
Rights Reserved.
Copying is permitted for noncommercial use by academic
computer centers, computer conferences, individual scholars, and
libraries. Libraries are authorized to add the journal to their
collection, in electronic or printed form, at no charge. This
message must appear on all copied material. All commercial use
requires permission.
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