textfiles/law/fbijul05.law

July 1990                                                         

                                                                  
                   THE FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGIST                                

                                By

                      Robert W. Mann, M.A.
                                and
                   Douglas H. Ubelaker, Ph.D.            
                    Physical Anthropologists
                   Department of Anthropology
           Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.          

                                                              
     In recent years, just as the investigation of a crime scene 
has become more complex and sophisticated, so has the task of the 
forensic anthropologist.  Forensic anthropologists assist medical 
and legal specialists to identify known or suspected human 
remains.                                                          

     The science of forensic anthropology includes archeological 
excavation; examination of hair, insects, plant materials and 
footprints; determination of elapsed time since death; facial 
reproduction; photographic superimposition; detection of 
anatomical variants; and analysis of past injury and medical 
treatment.  However, in practice, forensic anthropologists 
primarily help to identify a decedent based on the available 
evidence.                                                         

     For example, when a skeleton found in a wooded area is 
brought to a morgue or an anthropologist's laboratory for 
examination, the first step is to determine whether the remains 
are human, animal, or inorganic material.  If human, an 
anthropologist then attempts to estimate age at death, racial 
affiliation, sex, and stature of the decedent.                    

     If the skeleton shows evidence of prolonged burial  or  
is accompanied by coffin nails or arrow points, it usually 
represents an historic or prehistoric burial rather than a recent 
death.  Construction crews frequently unearth such skeletons 
during road or housing excavations.  After combining all of the 
evidence, the anthropologist determines the skeleton's possible 
significance to medical and legal authorities.                    

     Although the primary task of anthropologists is to establish 
the identity of a decedent, increasingly they provide expert 
opinion on the type and size of weapon(s) used and the number of 
blows sustained by victims of violent crime.  It should be noted, 
however, that forensic pathologists or related experts in 
forensic medicine determine the cause or manner of death, not the 
forensic anthropologist.                                          

     Most anthropologists have advanced degrees in anthropology 
and have examined hundreds of remains.  They are also thoroughly 
familiar with human anatomy and how it varies in different 
populations.  Some anthropologists may also have experience in 
police science or medicine, as well as in serology, toxicology, 
firearms and toolmarks identification, crime scene investigation, 
handling of evidence, and photography.  A limited number of 
anthropologists deal with footprint analysis and species 
identification of carrion insects in relation to estimating time 
elapsed since death.                                              

     Perhaps the anthropologist's most valuable skill is 
familiarity with subtle variations in the human skeleton. 
Although most adult skeletons have the same number of bones 
(206), no two skeletons are identical.  Therefore, observations 
of patterns or unique skeletal traits frequently lead to positive 
identifications.  The most frequently used method for 
identification is to compare before- and after-death dental 
photoimages.  If such photoimages do not exist, or if they are 
unavailable, then old skeletal injuries or anatomical skeletal 
variants revealed in other photoimages may provide the 
comparative evidence necessary to establish a positive 
identification.                                           

HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE                                              

     Suppose hunters find a partially clothed skeleton lying on 
the ground in a heavily wooded area with much of its clothing 
torn and scattered by carnivores.  Law enforcement officers are 
called to the scene, as is the medical examiner or nonphysician 
coroner.  The scene is photographed in detail, and the skeleton 
is examined and photographed before being removed to the city 
morgue.                                                           

     At the morgue, the medical examiner examines the remains for 
evidence of trauma, such as stab marks in the shirt, blunt trauma 
to the skull and mandible, and broken bones.  Photoimages and 
photographs of the body show that no bullets or pellets having 
been noted.  Also, examination of the clothing reveals no wallet 
or other personal identification.                                 

     The medical examiner determines through measurement of the 
pubic area that the remains are those of a middle-aged adult 
male.  There is no evidence of facial or head hair to aid in  
determining racial affiliation.  From measurements taken at the 
scene, the examiner roughly estimates the stature.  Also, a 
forensic odontologist is called in to take dental photoimages. 
Although the decedent has a number of large dental cavities, he 
shows no restorations or evidence of having seen a dentist.  At 
this point, the medical examiner requests assistance from a 
forensic anthropologist, who conducts further study of the 
remains in the laboratory.                                        

     The forensic anthropologist's examination confirms the 
medical examiner's findings that the individual is a middle-aged 
male.  However, questions remain that the forensic anthropologist 
must answer, such as:                                             

     .  What is the individual's racial affiliation?                 

     .  What is the individual's age and stature?                    

     .  How long has the individual been dead?                       

     .  Is there any evidence of trauma or foul play at or near the 
        time of death?                                                    

     .  Are there any distinguishing skeletal traits that may aid in 
        establishing the identity?                                     

     .  Is there any indication of post-mortem treatment or    
        alteration of the remains?                                      

Racial Affiliation                                                

     The question of racial affiliation is difficult to answer 
because, although racial classification has some biological 
components, it is based primarily on social affiliation. 
Nevertheless, some anatomical details, especially in the face, 
often suggest the individual's race.  In particular, white 
individuals have narrower faces with high noses and prominent 
chins.  Black individuals have wider nasal openings and subnasal 
grooves.  American Indians and Asians have forward-projecting 
cheekbones and specialized dental features.                       

     Examination of this skeleton reveals traits consistent with 
white racial affiliation.  Further examination of the skull 
produces a few strands of straight blonde hair.  Microscopic 
examination shows the hair to be consistent with that of a white 
person.                                                          

Age and Stature                                                   

     Usually, examination of the pubic bone, sacroiliac joint, 
amount of dental wear, cranium, arthritic changes in the spine, 
and microscopic studies of bones and teeth narrows the age 
estimate given by the anthropologist.  After examining the 
skeleton, these indicators suggest that the man was between 35 
and 45 years of age at the time of death.                         

     Estimation of stature can be narrowed by measuring one or 
more complete long bones, preferably a femur or tibia.  If 
stature estimates are based on incomplete long bones, less 
confidence can be placed in them.  This measurement of the 
maximum length of the bone can then be plugged into a formula 
based on race and sex to produce an estimate.  In this case the 
individual's stature was estimated at 5'7'' to 5'9'' with a mean 
stature of 5'8.''                                               

Time Interval Since Death                                         

     Estimating the time interval since death can be extremely 
difficult.  For the most part, such an estimate is based on the 
amount and condition of soft tissue, such as muscle, skin, and 
ligaments present, the preservation of the bones, extent of 
associated plant root growth, odor, and any carnivore and insect 
activity.  However, many other variables must also be considered, 
including the temperature at the time of death, penetrating 
wounds, humidity/aridity, soil acidity, and water retention.  The 
longer the time since death, the more difficult it is to 
determine the time interval since death.  In this hypothetical 
example, the anthropologist determined that the individual died 
6 to 9 months previously, based largely on the condition of the 
soft tissue and the amount of root growth in the individual's 
clothing.                                                  

Evidence of Trauma                                                

     After the dirt and forest debris were removed from the bones 
using water and a soft brush, a number of faint cuts became 
visible in the left ribs and the mid-back.  The number of 
discrete cuts in three ribs and in one vertebra suggest that this 
male was stabbed a minimum of three times.  No additional 
evidence of trauma was noted.                              

Distinguishing Skeletal Traits                                    

     Further examination revealed that the male sustained a 
fracture above his right eye and upper jaw bone at least several 
years before death.  The individual also had a severely deviated 
nasal septum and presented evidence of a severe chronic nasal 
infection.  This observation is noteworthy because if he sought 
medical help for the fractures or sinus condition, photoimages 
may have been taken that would provide an excellent opportunity 
for positive identification.                                      

POST-EXAMINATION PROCEDURES                                       

     After the forensic anthropologist completes the 
examination, the medical examiner provides all information 
obtained from the skeleton to the law enforcement officials 
investigating the case.  The information is then entered in the 
National Crime Information Center (NCIC).                         

     In this hypothetical case, after several months, a search 
failed to locate a missing person matching this description. 
Therefore, the medical examiner and the detectives returned to 
the forensic anthropologist to request that a facial 
reproduction be attempted.                                        

     Two approaches are available to an anthropologist in 
reconstructing facial appearance during life.  First, the 
anthropologist could work with a composite artist experienced in 
rendering sketches based on information supplied by eyewitnesses. 
Or, the anthropologist could call in a specialist in 
three-dimensional facial reproduction, a technique in which the 
head is constructed in clay directly over the skull and mandible 
or over good casts of them.  Because of limited funds, and 
because an experienced composite artist is available on staff, 
the forensic anthropologist and artist worked together to produce 
a drawing of the person represented by the skeletal remains.  
This drawing was then made available to the public via the local 
media.                                                            

     Shortly thereafter, two unrelated men who had seen the image 
on television came forward because they thought that it might be 
a relative.  Medical and dental records for both individuals 
could not be located, but facial photographs taken within the 
last 2 years were available.                                      

     Using new techniques of photographic superimposition and 
comparison, the forensic anthropologist excluded one of the 
individuals outright.  However, frontal photoimages of the second 
individual taken 3 years before death showed the individual was 
treated for facial injuries sustained in a motor vehicle 
accident.  The configuration of the frontal sinuses on the 
photoimages matched exactly the photoimages of the recovered 
skull, thereby positively identifying the victim.                 

VALUE OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY                                    

     A forensic anthropologist makes significant contributions to 
an investigation.  The greatest of these could well be the 
anthropologist's intensive training and experience in 
distinguishing between human and nonhuman remains, determining 
age at death, racial affiliation, sex, stature, elapsed time 
since death, skeletal trauma, post-mortem damage and alteration 
of the skeleton, and establishing positive identification based 
on skeletal and dental evidence.  Such information can be 
obtained from complete bodies or those partially destroyed by 
burning, air crashes, intentional mutilation and dismemberment, 
explosions, or other mass disasters.  In fact, a forensic 
anthropologist is now an integral member of most mass disaster 
teams.                                                            

     Through their anthropological training, most forensic 
anthropologists have knowledge of excavation techniques and 
mapping that are invaluable in recovering evidence.  
Consequently, the forensic anthropologist should participate in 
the investigation of the crime scene and, especially, in the 
recovery of human skeletal remains.                          

CONCLUSION                                                        

     Many forensic anthropologists offer their services to law 
enforcement agencies, coroners, and medical examiners.  However, 
if a law enforcement agency does not have access to a forensic 
anthropologist, experienced experts can be found in many of  the 
larger universities, in anthropology museums throughout the 
United States, and in some medical examiner's offices.  It should 
be noted, however, that not all physical anthropologists are 
qualified to practice forensic anthropology.  A list of board 
certified forensic anthropologists can be obtained from the 
American Academy of Forensic Sciences.  Forensic anthropologists 
have much to contribute to law enforcement and would welcome  
the opportunity to assist in the successful resolution of an  
investigation.