362 lines
21 KiB
Plaintext
362 lines
21 KiB
Plaintext
CREATING AN INDIAN GARDEN
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by Frances B. King
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Tired of giving away tomatoes? Bored with planting the same old things
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every year? Reconstructing a historic Indian garden involves learning new
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plants and growing methods. Many varieties of each plant can be used,
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ranging anywhere from old types that are barely domesticated to highly bred
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modern hybrids. In fact, many ancient varieties grow better than the weeds
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that become such a chore to remove during the hottest part of the summer.
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They do this because they have remained little more than weeds themselves.
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Speaking of weeds, many common weeds produce edible greens that were
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collected by the Indians for food and therefore belong in such a garden.
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An Indian garden can be aesthetically pleasing and designed to fit into
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almost any size area. Several of the plants grown by historic Indians are
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planted today primarily as ornamental or "novelties" including sunflowers,
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pumpkins, bottle gourds and small ornamental gourds. Some varieties are
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grown by only a few people who find enjoyment in preserving ancient types,
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often called heirloom varieties. Most of the plants grown by historic
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Indians were fairly large, giving an abundant return for a few seeds and a
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little time.
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The rewards of growing an Indian garden are greatly enhanced by reading
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about Indian lifeways, specific plants, religious ceremonies centered
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around crops, or cooking methods. The produce from the garden can be the
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basis of an Indian dinner (a traditional stew perhaps) as well as used as
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decorations or to fill a feeding station for birds.
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CORN
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At the time of European contact corn (Zea mays) was the most important
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crop of the Indians in eastern North America. The Indians had five kinds of
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corn: flint, dent, flour, pop and sweet. Flint corn had wide, hard kernels
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on a long, slender cob. Dent corn was grown only in the Southeast, and
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because of its late appearance in the archaeological record, many
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researchers feel it may have been introduced into the Southeast by the
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Spanish. Flint corn was well adapted to the cool, moist conditions of the
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Northeast and the hard kernels minimized insect damage. However, the early
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European colonists found that it was too dense and hard to feed to their
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livestock without first being ground. They crossed the flint with the
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softer dent corn of the Southeast and produced the forerunner of the modern
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"Corn Belt Dent" that is so widely grown today.
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Flour corn looked like flint, but the kernels were very soft and starchy
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making it easier to grind. Only a small amount of sweet corn was grown
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because it could be used for so few things compared to flint or flour corn.
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Usually it was roasted green; sometimes it was either dried or parched to
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be later added to soup.
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Among the historic Iroquois, popcorn was commonly eaten popped or made
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into a popcorn pudding by pounding the popped corn, sifting it to remove
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coarse pieces, and boiling in water until it reached the desired
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consistency. Historically this was eaten with maple syrup, sugar, and milk
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or cream. Popcorn soup was made by boiling the popcorn meal with meat and
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adding salt instead of sugar and milk.
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Each Indian family probably grew two or three favorite corn varieties,
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and there might have been a dozen different varieties grown in a small
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village. Each variety was recognized as being different in flavor and
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preferred uses. The Indians were very careful to maintain the purity of
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their favorite varieties by leaving unplanted areas or by planting crops,
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usually squash or beans, between plots of maize to prevent hybridization.
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Today, what we refer to as Indian corn is a colorful mixture of the old
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varieties. Mostly, Indian corn is used ornamentally in the autumn; whole
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plants are bound together in shocks or the ears tied in bunches of three to
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be hung on the doorways and porches. Excess ears can be put out for birds,
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such as cardinals and blue jays, and for squirrels. Birds have a much
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easier time eating the softer flour corn than the flint corn. Several ears
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of the latter have hung untouched all winter on our porch.
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Indian corn can be cooked as the Indians did. Most recipes are for soup
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or broths that often
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included not only corn but beans, squash, sunflower seeds and meat. The
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corn was used either fresh, dried, or parched (toasted) and for some
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dishes was ground in a mortar. A small amount of wood ash was often
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included in either the food or the cooking water as seasoning and recent
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studies show that the alkali present in the ashes increased the nutrients
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available from the corn. Like field corn, Indian corn makes tender and
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sweet corn on the cob when it is picked young.
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BEANS
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Four species of beans were important food crops in the New World (lima,
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tepary, runner and common beans) although only common bean (Phaseolus
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vulgaris) was cultivated in eastern North America prior to European
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contact. This bean arrived from the Southwest sometime after A.D. 800 and,
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by the 1600's, the Indians had a great variety of common beans including
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white, black, red, yellow, blue, spotted, and many combinations of colors -
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these included both bush and pole types. Some of these bean varieties have
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become extinct, others became popular with the settlers in certain areas
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and remain common even today (Great Northern, for example). Numerous other
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varieties are grown by only a few individuals who find enjoyment in
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preserving the ancient, heirloom varieties.
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Bean seeds are edible, either when immature and in the pod as green beans
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or when allowed to mature and are shelled. If used in recipes calling for
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dried beans, some of the heirloom beans are considered to have flavor far
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surpassing that of varieties commonly sold in the supermarket. They prove
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that many factors other than just flavor were important in determining
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which beans were developed commercially and which were not.
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Although the runner bean was cultivated by the Indians in Mexico, it
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never made beyond northern Mexico during prehistoric times. In addition to
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edible seeds, the scarlet runner bean has striking red flowers that attract
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hummingbirds and make it a beautiful addition to the Indian garden. In
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garden shops and seed catalogs it is generally sold with the ornamentals
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rather than the vegetables.
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SQUASH
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The Indians of eastern North America grew only one of our six cultivated
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species of squash (Cucurbita pepo), but they had developed many varieties
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of this species by the time of European contact. These include types we
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know today as acorn, zucchini, yellow straight-and crook-neck, pattypan,
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pumpkins and the small ornamental gourds.
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The term "pumpkin" refers to large, round, orange fruits that are coarse
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and strongly flavored, a good reason why most pumpkins become Jack-o-
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Lanterns rather than pies and why canned "pumpkin" is often actually winter
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squash. Small ornamental gourds also belong to this species and possess
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many of the traits that their wild ancestors probably had: many small
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seeds, thin bitter flesh, and small fruit size. The only selection that
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has occurred among the ornamental gourds is for variation in the colors and
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textures of the rind.
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Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) has been grown in eastern North
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America for about 4,500 years. Long before the development of pottery, the
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large, thick-walled fruits make excellent containers and the Indians grew
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gourds of a wide variety of sizes and shapes. Although the southeastern
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Indians used gourds as birdhouses to attract insect-catching birds to their
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gardens, the use of bottle-gourd birdhouses is generally discouraged
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because they provide poor ventilation for the occupants.
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OTHER GARDEN PLANTS
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Watermelons (Citrullus lanatus) were introduced by the Spanish in about
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1573 and rapidly spread throughout eastern North America. In the 1822
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volume of the Transactions of the Illinois Horticultural Society, Woods
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reported that: "Watermelons are also in great plenty, of vast size; some I
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suppose weigh 20 pounds. They are more like pumpkins in outward appearance
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than melons. They are round or oblong, generally green or a green and
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whitish color on the outside, and white or pale on the inside, with many
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black seeds in them, very juicy, in flavor like rich water, and sweet and
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mawkish, but cool and pleasant."
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Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) were brought into cultivation in eastern
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North America during prehistoric times. From a comparison of the sunflower
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heads found in archeological sites with modern varieties, Heiser noted in
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his book The Sunflower that some Indians were growing plants as large as
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any modern varieties.
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Sunflowers make an attractive fence or garden border. The heads can be
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harvested in the fall and saved for the birds. Removing the seeds is a
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difficult job and many people merely suspend the whole heads and let the
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birds do the work. My husband avoids even that step and leaves the heads on
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the plants all winter. The heads are visited by a steady succession of
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cardinals, blue jays, finches, and other birds well into the fall. Even
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after the seeds are gone, the heads are used as perches, and many times in
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late winter we have seen downy woodpeckers searching on the stems for
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insects.
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Like the sunflower, the Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) is a
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native North American plant that was used for food by certain Indians.
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However, in this case the underground tubers were eaten, not the seeds. The
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tubers were eaten either raw or cooked by roasting or boiling. They are low
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in calories and considered by some to be superior to potatoes in flavor and
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nourishment. The plant is a perennial, with the tubers living over the
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winter in the ground and giving rise to new plants in the spring. It grows
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5 to 7 feet tall and has yellow "daisy-like" flowers from mid-summer
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through fall. Today, farmers consider this plant to be an unwelcome weed.
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It grows vigorously and is exceedingly difficult to eradicate.
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The species of tobacco grown by the Indians of North America was
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Nicotiana rustica, a species considerably inferior to N. tabacum, the
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species used today and once grown by the Indians of central and northern
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South America. While N. tabacum grows up to nine feet tall, with extremely
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large leaves, N. rustica is a shorter, shrubbier plant with proportionately
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smaller leaves. Because of its higher nicotine content, N. rustica has
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sometimes been used as an organic insecticide. The plant is not especially
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attractive, with yellow-green flowers and fleshy leaves. Without question,
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it was an important plant to the Indians and deserves a place in the Indian
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garden; but it might be better in the back rather than the front.
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PLANTING AND CULTIVATION
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Some groups, such as the Huron, neither cultivated nor fertilized the
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land, farming it only for 10 to 20 years until the soil was depleted. They
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then moved the village to another place. Other groups, such as the Seneca,
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were said to manure large plots of ground for their Indian corn.
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Groups such as the Onondaga which had a taboo against soil disturbance,
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practiced an early form of no-till agriculture. The weeds were merely
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cleared away for a small space around the old cornstalks. These were then
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pulled and the new crop planted in the resulting hole. This method
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certainly prevented the growth of extra weeds, but it also would have been
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dangerous during a bad outbreak of corn rootworms.
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Among many groups, including the Iroquois, corn was soaked in warm water
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or an herbal decoction before being planted. The moisture hastened the
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germination of the seeds and the Indians believed that the herbs may have
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contributed some of their vitality or protection to the corn; at least one
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Indian noted that this practice prevented the worms and birds from
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bothering the corn.
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After everything was ready, an Iroquois family went to the field, the
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woman of the house stood in the middle of it and said something like "God,
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our father, you see me and my children. We stand in the middle of the field
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where we are going to plant our food. We beg you to supply us with an
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abundant yield of corn." They then began to plant, placing beans, squash,
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or pumpkin seeds in every hill, or every few hills.
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Indian corn was usually planted in hills about 12 inches above the level
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of the field and about 18 inches in diameter. The hills were spaced about
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four feet from the center to center to allow plenty of room for pulling
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additional soil onto the hill later in the season. Six to eight seeds were
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planted within a nine-inch-diameter circle on top of the mound. Different
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varieties of corn were planted in different fields at some distance from
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each other to prevent hybridizing. Bean hills were smaller (7 x 14 inches)
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and not as tall. Two groups of 3 to 4 seeds were planted in each hill.
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Climbing beans were planted by themselves, given poles to climb or spread
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among the corn hills and allowed to climb on the cornstalks. The corn in
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these cases had to be a vigorous variety that could bear the additional
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weight of the bean vines. Pumpkins and squashes were usually planted in
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separate areas, with two pairs of two seeds each, spaced on 15-inch-
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diameter hills. More space was left between the hills because of the long
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vines. Sunflowers were often planted 7 to 9 inches apart in a row around
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the borders of the garden, or in patches by themselves.
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Among some groups, the only cultivation was to clear away the last year's
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cornstalks and to cut down or trample the weeds that appeared. The Hidatsa
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were a much more industrious group. They began to hoe their corn when it
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was about three inches tall and continued to work in their fields until it
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was 8 to 18 inches tall. Then, when the corn silk appeared, the corn was
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hilled to firm the plants against the wind and cover the roots from the
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sun. The squash and beans were also hilled at this time.
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The Indians' gardens had just as many predators as do our gardens today.
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Scarecrows were used to frighten crows, and girls and young women would
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stay in the garden to watch for birds, raccoons, small boys, and other
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thieves. Insects and diseases probably destroyed a portion of each crop;
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however, the relatively small amount of cropland, and its wide dispersal,
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probably minimized the spread of such pests.
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SOME PLANT VARIETIES
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SUITABLE FOR INDIAN GARDENS
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The following varieties are either directly descended from those grown by
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the Indians or are similar. Although many other varieties might be more
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authentic, there are no ready sources for them, whereas the following are
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available from commercial sources. I included varieties that are either
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widely available, or available from the sources listed at the end of this
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article. Many other seed catalogs include heirloom varieties.
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For those truly interested in ancient varieties, a good place to start is
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by joining the Seed Savers Exchange. The membership fee buys two listings
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per year of people and the varieties of seeds they have to sell or trade
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and those they want. Many Indian varieties are included.
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A Mississippian garden would have included corn, common beans, pepo
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squash and pumpkins, bottle gourds, tobacco, and sunflowers, as well as
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several native plants that were merely tolerated or grown to a lesser
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extent. Only after the Spanish arrived did the Indians obtain watermelons
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and squash such as hubbard and butternut.
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Pop Corn
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Tom Thumb Yellow is a dwarf plant 3.5 feet tall with 2 to 4 cobs, each 4
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to 4 inches long. It is bred from a New England heirloom and available from
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Johnny's Selected Seeds.
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Sweet Corn
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Golden Bantam has 5- to 6-foot stalks with at least two slender cobs per
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stalk, each cob having 8 rows of kernels. This variety is widely available.
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Hopi sweet corn of the Bantam type is available from Native Seeds/Search.
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Flint Corn
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Indian Ornamental, Rainbow, and Calico (mixtures of variously colored
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Indian varieties) are all widely available.
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Garland Flint plants are 7 to 8 feet tall with 7- to 8-inch ears having 8
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rows of kernels. Most ears are yellow, some are red. Available form
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Johnny's Selected Seeds.
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Flour Corn
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Mandan Bride has plants 5 to 6 feet tall and cobs with 8 to 12 rows of
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multicolored kernels. It matures early and is available from Johnny's
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Selected Seeds.
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Pole Beans
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Kentucky Wonder was grown by the Meskwaki Indians of southern Michigan.
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It is widely available.
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Great Northern was grown by the Hidatsa Indians of the northern Great
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Plains and is widely available.
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Case Knife has white seeds and is one of the oldest green beans in
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America. Available form Johnny's Selected Seeds.
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Cornfield has medium-sized vines and is tolerant of the shade in a
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cornfield. Available from the Vermont Bean Seed Co.
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Bush Beans
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Soldier has large beans with red-brown eyes. Available from Johnny's
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Selected Seeds and the Vermont Bean Seed Co.
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Vermont Cranberry is New England Heirloom with the color and shape of
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cranberry. It is available from the Vermont Bean Seed Co.
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Golden Wax is white-seeded with purple-black eyes. Widely available.
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Jacob's Cattle is a beautiful bean of ancient origin. It has a 24-inch
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bush with kidney-shaped white seeds speckled with deep maroon. Available
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from Johnny's Selected Seeds and Vermont Bean Seed Co.
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Squash and Pumpkin
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Cucurbita pepo. Only one species was present in eastern North America
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prehistorically.
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Pumpkins of any small variety such as Small Sugar or Jack O'Lantern are
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widely available and appropriate for an Indian garden.
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Zucchini, Acorn, Scallop were all raised by the Indians of the Missouri
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River Region "since time immemorial," and are widely available.
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Sunflowers
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(Helianthus annuus). Gilbert L. Wilson in his Agriculture of the Hidatsa
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wrote that varieties with black, white, red and striped seeds were grown
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although the taste and smell were the same and all were cooked alike. The
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Hopi Indians grew a variety with black (actually deep purple) fruits that
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were used to make a dye. Some Indian varieties produced one to three large
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heads as well as smaller heads on side branches. Other Indian groups grew
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sunflowers that were more similar to modern varieties having only a single
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large head.
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Mammoth is tall with a large single head and is widely available.
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Hopi Black Dye has an edible seed and the shell was used for basketry
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dye. It is available from Native Seeds/Search.
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Watermelons
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Citrullus lanatus. A great diversity of watermelons was grown by the
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historic Indians, most would be suitable for an Indian garden.
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Sugar Baby is a small, early variety with a dark-green rind, small brown
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seeds, and red-orange flesh. It is widely available.
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Winter Melon has fruits that weigh about 10 pounds and have very sweet
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red flesh. It stores well. Available from Jung Seeds and Nursery.
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Hopi Yellow-meated is small with yellow flesh and is available from
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Native Seeds/Search.
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Bottle Gourds
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(Lagenaria siceraria) were used in many ways as containers, rattles,
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dippers, and other utensils. The southeastern Indians placed gourd
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birdhouses near their gardens to attract insect-eating birds. Almost any of
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the bottle gourds are suitable except the very large round ones, which are
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African in origin, the long slender ones, or the Penguin or Caveman's Club
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gourd. Dipper, Birdhouse and Water Bottle shapes are especially good.
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SOURCES OF SEEDS FOR THE INDIAN GARDEN
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Native Seeds/Search. A nonprofit organization devoted to the conservation
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and promotion of native, agriculturally valuable plants of the Southwest.
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Address: 3950 West New York Drive, Tucson, Arizona 85745.
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Seed Savers Exchange. Not-for-profit organization devoted to the
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preservation of endangered vegetable varieties. Their "Garden Seed Inven-
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tory" lists the addresses of 240 companies and commercial sources for
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nearly 6,000 non-hybrid varieties. Address: P.O. Box 70, Decorah, Iowa
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52101.
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Vermont Bean Seed Co. Garden Lane, Bomoseen, Vermont 05732.
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Johnny's Selected Seeds. Features varieties adapted for the Northeast.
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Address: Albion, Maine 04910.
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Gurneys Seed and Nursery Co. Their large selection of seeds includes
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several heirloom varieties. Address: Yankton, South Dakota 57079.
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Jung Seed and Nursery. 335 South High Street, Randolph, Wisconsin 53957.
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Additional Readings
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Heiser, Charles B. 1969. Nightshades, the Paradoxical Plants. W.H.
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Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 200 pp.
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_____. 1976. The Sunflower. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman, 198 pp.
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_____. 1979. The Gourd Book. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman, 248 pp.
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Jabs, Carolyn. 1985. The Heirloom Gardener. Sierra Club Books, San
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Francisco, 288 pp.
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Johnson, Judi, and Frances King, compilers. 1976. Green Corn and Violets.
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Illinois State Museum, Springfield, 53 pp.
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Styles, Bonnie W. 1984. Early Native Americans in Illinois. The Living
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Museum 46(2):19-29.
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Wilson, G.L. 1917. Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians: An Indian
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Interpretation. Univ. Minn. Studies in Soc. Sci. 9:1-129.
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----Reprinted with permission from "The Living Museum" 48(3):35-38.
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------------------------------------
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*******************************************************
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- C L I N T O N I A -
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Magazine of the Niagara Frontier Botanical Society
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An Affiliate of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences
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Vol. 6, Issue 1, January 3, 1991
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Electronic Edition: January 15, 1991
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*******************************************************
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Niagara Frontier Botanical Society, Inc.
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Buffalo Museum of Science
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1020 Humboldt Parkway
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Buffalo, NY 14211
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