430 lines
24 KiB
Plaintext
430 lines
24 KiB
Plaintext
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I finally got my word-processor to output the text of my psychology paper
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on LSD -- here it is: (formatting _may_ be hosed somewhere.. if you have
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any questions/clarifications, lemme know).
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----------------------------------- cut here ------------------------------
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The Psychological Effects of LSD
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Marc Anderson
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Psychology 101
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July 28, 1992
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Introduction
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LSD has always been a center of controversy in American
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society, often times because people have been miseducated
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about its effects or exposed to media bias. Its
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physiological effects on the brain and body have become more
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and more apparent in the last few decades when research in
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neuroscience peaked. The psychological effects of LSD have
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been often difficult to describe and document very well --
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they were first discovered on April 16, 1943 by research
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chemist Albert Hofmann when a small amount of the drug
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soaked through his fingers during a routine synthesis. He
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experienced an imaginative dream-like state for a duration
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of about 2-3 hours (Hofmann, 1983). Since then, a great
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deal of work has been done attempting to document the health
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effects of LSD.
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Acute Effects
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LSD is very potent: the effective dose is measured in
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micrograms (ug) -- however, the lethal dose is literally
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thousands of times that, making the drug essentially non-
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toxic. There have been only a few cases of possible
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overdose where people ingested extremely large amounts of
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the drug (Allen et al., 1978; Griggs et al., 1977).
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LSD can be administered a number of ways, the most
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common: orally through paper, sugar cubes, on a piece of
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gelatin, or by pill; intravenously; or intramuscularly. A
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standard dose with noticeable hallucinogenic effects is
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about 100-200 ug. The intensity of the trip is proportional
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to the size of the dose -- it is interesting to note,
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though, that the duration of the trip seems to stay the same
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at higher doses (Freedman, 1984). The initial effects begin
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20-40 minutes with a sense of euphoria and dizziness.
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Hallucinations then begin to occur, with the trip peaking
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for 4-5 hours after about an hour since the drug is taken.
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LSD is best described as a drug that strikes down barriers.
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The person who uses LSD is likely to feel detached from
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his/her ego, and can cross between states of consciousness.
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The user's perceptions are altered, causing visual and
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auditory hallucinations. One may notice that the walls of
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room are "breathing" or that motionless curtains appear to
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be moving. Senses appear to mix: a user might see music,
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taste colors, or hear visual stimuli. The LSD experience is
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often difficult to describe by users -- words lose meaning
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and are often insufficient in describing the effects of the
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drug; thoughts may seem unclear. Effects taper off after
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about 6-8 hours and are usually completely gone after a
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nights sleep.
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The user's mood is likely to change depending on how
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he/she feels at various stages of the trip. The outcome of
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the trip is almost always dependent on two primary
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variables: the set and the setting. The set refers to a
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user's expectations of the drug's effects and the user's
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state-of-mind. The setting is the environment in which the
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drug is taken. If an inexperienced user takes LSD in
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stressed condition or in a bad mood, a bad experience may
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occur. By the same token, taking LSD in a chaotic
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environment like a noisy rock concert could turn into
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trouble for someone unsure of the drugs effects. When users
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on LSD become frightened or enter a state of panic, they can
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usually be relieved or "talked down" by a friend. With this
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in mind, probably the best way to use LSD would be in one's
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home with several trusting supportive friends.
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The following is a fairly long, but very informative
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account of one of the first documented LSD trips done by
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Albert Hofmann in 1943:
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"4/19/43 16:20: 0.5 cc of 1/2 promil aqueous
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solution of diethylamide tartrate orally=0.25 mg
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tartrate. Taken diluted with about 10 cc water.
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Tasteless.
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17:00: Beginning dizziness, feeling of anxiety,
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visual distortions, symptoms of paralysis, desire
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to laugh.
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Supplement of 4/21: Home by bicycle. From 18:00-
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ca.20:00 most severe crisis. (See special
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report.)
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* * * *
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Here the notes in my laboratory journal
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cease. I was able to write the last words only
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with great effort. By now it was already clear to
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me that LSD had been the cause of the remarkable
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experience of the previous Friday, for the altered
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perceptions were of the same type as before, only
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much more intense. I had to struggle to speak
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intelligibly. I asked my laboratory assistant,
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who was informed of the self-experiment, to escort
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me home. We went by bicycle, no automobile
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available because of wartime restrictions on their
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use. On the way home, my condition began to
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assume threatening forms. Everything in my field
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of vision wavered and was distorted as if seen in
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a curved mirror. I also had the sensation of
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being unable to move from the spot. Nevertheless,
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my assistant later told me that we had traveled
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very rapidly. Finally, we arrived at home safe
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and sound, and I was just barely capable of asking
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my companion to summon our family doctor and
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request milk from the neighbors.
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[...]
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The dizziness and sensation of fainting
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became so strong at times that I could no longer
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hold myself erect, and had to lie down on a sofa.
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My surroundings had now transformed themselves in
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more terrifying ways. Everything in the room spun
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around, and the familiar objects and pieces of
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furniture assumed grotesque, threatening forms.
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They were in continuous motion, animated, as if
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driven by an inner restlessness. The lady next
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door, whom I scarcely recognized, brought me milk
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-- in the course of the evening I drank more than
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two liters. She was no longer Mrs. R., but rather
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a malevolent, insidious witch with a colored mask.
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Even worse than these demonic transformations
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of the outer world, were the alterations that I
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perceived in myself, in my inner being. Every
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exertion of my will, every attempt to put an end
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to the disintegration of the outer world and the
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dissolution of my ego, seemed to be a wasted
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effort. A demon had invaded me, had taken
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possession of my body, mind, and soul. I jumped
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up and screamed, trying to free myself from him,
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but then sank down again and lay helpless on the
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sofa. The substance, with which I wanted to
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experiment, had vanquished me. It was the demon
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that scornfully triumphed over my will. I was
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seized by the dreadful fear of going insane. I
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was taken to another world, another place, another
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time. My body seemed to be without sensation,
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lifeless, strange. Was I dying? Was this the
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transition? At times I believed myself to be
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outside my body, and then perceived clearly, as an
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outside observer, the complete tragedy of my
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situation. I had not even taken leave of my
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family (my wife, with our three children had
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traveled that day to visit her parents, in
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Lucerne). Would they ever understand that I had
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not experimented thoughtlessly, irresponsibly, but
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rather with the utmost caution, and that such a
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result was in no way foreseeable? My fear and
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despair intensified, not only because a young
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family should lose its father, but also because I
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dreaded leaving my chemical research work, which
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meant so much to me, unfinished in the midst of
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fruitful, promising development. Another
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reflection took shape, an idea full of bitter
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irony: if I was now forced to leave this world
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prematurely, it was because of this lysergic acid
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diethylamide that I myself had brought forth into
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the world.
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By the time the doctor arrived, the climax of
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my despondent condition had already passed. My
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laboratory assistant informed him about my self-
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experiment, as I myself was not yet able to
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formulate a coherent sentence. He shook his head
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in perplexity, after my attempts to describe the
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mortal danger that threatened my body. He could
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detect no abnormal symptoms other than extremely
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dilated pupils. Pulse, blood pressure, breathing
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were all normal. He saw no reason to prescribe
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any medication. Instead he conveyed me to my bed
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and stood watch over me. Slowly I came back from
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a weird, unfamiliar world to reassuring everyday
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reality. The horror softened and gave way to a
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feeling of good fortune and gratitude, the more
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normal perceptions and thoughts returned, and I
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became more confident that the danger of insanity
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was conclusively past.
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Now, little by little I could begin to enjoy
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the unprecedented colors and plays of shapes that
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persisted behind my closed eyes. Kaleidoscopic,
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fantastic images surged in on me, alternating,
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variegated, opening and then closing themselves in
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circles and spirals, exploding in colored
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fountains, rearranging and hybridizing themselves
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in constant flux. It was particularly remarkable
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how every acoustic perception, such as the sound
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of a door handle or a passing automobile, became
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transformed into optical perceptions. Every sound
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generated a vividly changing image, with its own
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consistent form and color.
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Late in the evening my wife returned from
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Lucerne. Someone had informed her by telephone
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that I was suffering a mysterious breakdown. She
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had returned home at once, leaving the children
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behind with her parents. By now, I had recovered
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myself sufficiently to tell her what had happened.
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Exhausted, I then slept, to awake next
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morning refreshed, with a clear head, though still
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somewhat tired physically. A sensation of well-
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being and renewed life flowed through me.
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Breakfast tasted delicious and gave me
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extraordinary pleasure. When I later walked into
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the garden, in which the sun shone now after a
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spring rain, everything glistened and sparkled in
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fresh light. The world was as if newly created.
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All my senses vibrated in a condition of highest
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sensitivity, which persisted for the entire day."
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(Hofmann, 1983).
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Chronic Effects
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The long-term effects of LSD use can be both good and
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bad. There are cases of people who claim to have had their
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entire lives turned around, for the better, due to LSD use.
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On the other hand, some people have been hospitalized by so-
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called "LSD psychosis." In the late 1960s, several studies
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indicated possible chromosome breakage due to LSD use. Some
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people report experiencing "LSD flashbacks" -- brief vivid
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repetitions of a previous LSD experience.
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The effects of LSD are very strong and profound. Many
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people have claimed to have discovered their inner selves
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under the influence of LSD. One interesting analogy was
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made by Professor Jeffrey M. Blum of the University of
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Buffalo School of Law:
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"The problems posed by LSD, for example, in some
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ways resemble those presented by scuba diving.
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Each is seen as a form of exploration that opens
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new vistas. Hence participants often find the
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activity enormously stimulating and inspiring.
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Each activity poses a small but significant risk
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of serious personal harm, these being death in one
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and aggravation of pre-existing states of mental
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instability for the other. Untrained,
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unsupervised use of unchecked substances or
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equipment are ill-advised in both cases." (Blum,
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1990)
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LSD also has shown to have therapeutic usefulness. It has
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been successful in treating some forms of schizophrenia
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(Hoffer, 1970). Another study found notable success in
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treating terminally-ill cancer patients: two-thirds of the
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subjects showed positive change in anxiety, emotional
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tension, psychological isolation, fear of death, and the
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amount of pain medication needed (Pahnke et al., 1970).
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Studies that have shown LSD useful in treating alcoholism
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and other addictions are contradictory and may be
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inconclusive. Pahnke's group (1970) reported moderate
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success in treating alcoholism, but Ludwig (1970) found
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less-than-encouraging results. It's important to note,
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though, that both of these studies used vastly different
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treatment styles and dosages of the drug.
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Some users of LSD experience what is clinically referred
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to as LSD psychosis, schizophrenic-like disorders that seem
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to be triggered by using the drug. However, in careful
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analysis of LSD psychosis patients, it appears that those
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who have strong family histories of major psychosis or
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psychopathology are more vulnerable than those who do not
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(Tsuang et al., 1982). Vardy et al. (1983) reported similar
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findings, as well as that LSD psychotics have significantly
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higher rates of parental alcoholism than control groups. In
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a survey of five-thousand individuals who had used LSD a
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total of twenty-five-thousand times, Cohen (1960) found 1.8
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psychotic episodes per thousand ingestions, 1.2 attempted
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suicides, and 0.4 completed suicides -- figures consistent
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with the those of the general population. Regarding dangers
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of psychosis in therapeutic uses of LSD, Pahnke et al.
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(1970) notes:
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"Since 1963 at the Spring Grove State Hospital,
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and now at the Maryland Psychiatric Research
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Center, over 300 patients have been treated with
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LSD without a single case of long-term
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psychological or physical harm directly
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attributable to the treatment, although there have
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been two post-LSD disturbances which have
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subsequently responded to conventional treatment."
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Bad reactions to LSD are almost certainly dependent on the
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user. It is becoming increasingly easier to diagnose
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schizophrenics clinically as patients suffering physical
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disorders -- these people should be very cautious, if not
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completely avoidant of truly powerful psychoactive drugs
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like LSD. There are another class of people who use LSD
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irresponsibly, ignoring important factors like set and
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setting -- bad reactions, more acute then chronic, are
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likely to occur here as well.
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Really the only serious physiological concern about LSD
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use has been that it may cause chromosome damage -- this was
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first reported by Cohen et al. in 1967. These findings were
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seldom replicated, and were contradicted by other studies
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(Loughman et al., 1967; Bender et al., 1968; Pahnke, 1970).
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In 1977, Maimon Cohen, one of the invesigators who first
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reported this a decade earlier, stated that no conclusions
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could be drawn based on existing evidence (Cohen et al.,
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1977).
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The phenomena of LSD flashbacks has been over-sensualized
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by the media for many years. Flashbacks are associated with
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highly emotional experiences and often happen to people who
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have never used psychedelic drugs. A frightening war
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memory, being raped, or even getting married, can all
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trigger flashbacks quite some time later. Thus, an
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emotional experience on LSD can also cause flashbacks.
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Flashbacks also occur due to post-traumatic stress disorder,
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associated with victims of disaster and extreme violence --
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it is estimated that 1% of the general population suffers
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from this ("Journey for Better Life," 1992).
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Conclusion
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LSD is a very potent drug, but is physically quite safe
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and non-toxic. Its effects include mild euphoria and
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anxiety, altered perceptions, and the ability to pass
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between states of consciousness. Visual hallucinations are
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the most noticeable by users. The acute effects taper off
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as time progresses and are usually gone by the next morning.
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Chronic effects of the drug can be positive and negative.
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Positive effects include spiritual contact and self-
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exploration; the most severe negative effect is known as LSD
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psychosis. LSD has shown to have therapeutic usefulness,
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although research has been severely limited for the last
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several decades. LSD psychosis has been linked to forms of
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schizophrenia, and thus, to some physiological disorders --
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it appears to be dependent on the user, and not on the drug.
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References Cited
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Allen, R.M. & Young, S.J. (1978): Phencyclidine-induced
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psychosis. Am. J. Psychiatry. 135:1081-1083.
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Bender, L. & Siva Sankar, D.V. (1968, 16 February):
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Chromosomal damage not found in leukocytes of children
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treated with LSD-25. Science. 159:749.
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Blum, J. (1990): Letter to Judge John L. Elfvin; United
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States District Court.
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Cohen, M.M., Hirschhorn, K. & Frosch, W.A. (1967, 16
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November): In vivo and in vitro chromosomal damage
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induced by LSD-25. NEJM. 277:1043-1049.
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Cohen, M.M. & Shiloh, Y. (1977-1978): Genetic toxicology of
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lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). Mutat. Res.
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47:183-209.
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Cohen, S. (1960): Lysergic acid diethylamide: side
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effects and complications. Journal of Nervous and Mental
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Disease. 130:30-40.
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Freedman, D.X. (1984): LSD: The bridge from human to
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animal. In: Jacobs, B.L. (Ed.) Hallucinogens:
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Neurochemical, Behavioral, and Clinical Perspectives.
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New York: Raven Press.
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Griggs, E.A. & Ward, M. (1977): LSD toxcity: A suspected
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cause of death. J. Ky. Med. Assoc. 75:172-173.
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Hoffer, A. (1970): Treatment of psychosis with LSD. In
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Gamage, J.R. & Zerkin, E.L. Hallucinogenic Drug
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Research. Beloit, Wisconsin: Stash Press.
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Hofmann, A. (1983): LSD -- My Problem Child. (J. Ott,
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Trans.) Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher.
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Journey for better life hell for some women. (1992, Feb
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18): LA Times. pg. A3.
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Loughman, W.D., Sargent, T.W. & Israelstam, D.M. (1967, 27
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October): Leukocytes of humans exposed to lysergic acid
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diethylamide: lack of chromosomal damage. Science.
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158:508-510.
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Ludwig, A. (1970): LSD treatment in alcoholism. In
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Gamage, J.R. & Zerkin, E.L. Hallucinogenic Drug
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Research. Beloit, Wisconsin: Stash Press.
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Pahnke, W.N., Kurland, A.A., Unger, S., Savage, C. & Grof,
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S. (1970): The experimental use of psychedelic (LSD)
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psychotherapy. In Gamage, J.R. & Zerkin, E.L.
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Hallucinogenic Drug Research. Beloit, Wisconsin: Stash
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Press.
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Tsuang, M.T., Simpson, J.C., & Kronfol, Z. (1982):
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Subtypes of drug abuse with psychosis. Arch. Gen
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Psychiatry. 39:141-147.
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Vardy, N.M. & Kay, S.R. (1983): LSD psychosis or LSD-
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induced schizophrenia? A multi-method inquiry. Arch.
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Gen. Psychiatry. 40:877-83.
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Wesson, D.R. & Smith, D.E. (1976): An analysis of
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psychedelic flashbacks. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse.
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3:425-435.
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