282 lines
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282 lines
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ARRoGANT CoURiERS WiTH ESSaYS
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Grade Level: Type of Work Subject/Topic is on:
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[ ]6-8 [ ]Class Notes [The Influence of Writers]
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[x]9-10 [ ]Cliff Notes [on Charles Darwin ]
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[ ]11-12 [x]Essay/Report [ ]
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[ ]College [ ]Misc [ ]
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Dizzed: 10/94 # of Words:2315 School: ? State: ?
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<EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>><3E><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>><3E><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>>Chop Here><3E><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>><3E><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>><3E><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>><3E><><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD><EFBFBD>
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THE INFLUENCE OF WRITERS
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ON CHARLES DARWIN
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The theory of Evolution as presented by Charles Darwin has had a
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great impact on the world today. It has caused many debates between
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religious authorities and those from the scientific community. This theory
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had prompted individuals to think about themselves, their origins and it
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has changed the way in which they view themselves in the environment.
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However, Darwin was not the first person to write on evolution. There were
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many others before him such as Lamarck, Buffon, and Darwin's grandfather
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Erasmus Darwin. However, what distinguishes Charles Darwin from the others
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is the fact that he collected and provided substantial proofs and he
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related various branches of science such as geology, botany and biology
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which helped validate his theories. His theory of natural selection as
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stated by Nelson and Jurmain (1991, p.606) in the modern form is that "the
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evolutionary factor causes changes in allele frequencies in populations due
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to differential net reproductive success of individuals." His grasp of the
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evolutionary process and the clarity of his work makes Charles Darwin the
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most popular figure in the scientific field of Evolution (Francoeur, 1965,
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p.34). Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was the fourth child of Dr. Robert
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Darwin and grandson of Erasmus Darwin. Much of Charles' childhood was
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spent collecting insects, coins and reading various literature on natural
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history, travel and poetry. Charles Darwin was not a scholarly student
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during his years at Edinburgh Medical College. He disliked what was taught
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and found most of the lectures boring, yet he developed a natural interest
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in studying rocks and fossils. He convinced his father that he could not
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be a doctor as his father had wished, so instead Charles Darwin studied
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Theology at the University of Cambridge. After his studies he was given
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the opportunity to travel on the H.M.S. Beagle as a naturalist. Darwin
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took this opportunity and it is this voyage that propelled him to begin his
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work on evolution. During his research, Darwin read several references
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which greatly influenced his own writings. Although there were many factors
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which affected Darwin's theories this paper will discuss how Darwin was
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influenced by the beliefs of William Paley, Erasmus Darwin, Thomas Malthus
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and Charles Lyell.
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Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) was a well renowned doctor, poet and
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philosopher who wrote many books concerning nature. Among his works
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Zoonomia, a medical textbook, has received the most attention. In this work
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Erasmus Darwin expressed such ideas as "evolution by natural and sexual
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selection, protective adaptation, inheritance of acquired characteristics,
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and even the evolution of mankind" almost fifty years before Charles Darwin
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(Nelson & Jurmain., 1991, p.32). Erasmus Darwin had said that all
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different living things were produced over millions of years by one
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original ancient parent, such that each offspring had a natural tendency to
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improve itself (Karp, 1968, p.14). However, fossil records show that this
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theory of one original parent was not probable (Karp, 1968, p.14). His
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opposition toward any form of organized religion and his rejection of
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Christianity was considered to be superficial and eccentric (Chancellor,
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1973, p.21). His tendency to theorize and create wild speculations
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without testing his theories caused his reputation as a scientist to
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suffer. By the end of the 18th century all discussions of evolution were
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suppressed because of the rigid creationist views held by the Church who
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persecuted anyone who challenged their beliefs (Chancellor, 1973, p.41).
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It was not until the publication of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species
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that the discussion of evolution was revived.
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Being well renowned, Erasmus' work was discussed in his family
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circle thus exposing Charles to the work of his grandfather early on in his
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life. Moreover, Charles Darwin having interest in poetry and philosophy
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was naturally inclined to study the work of his grandfather. Although
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Erasmus did not solve the problem of the process of evolution, the reading
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and exposure of his work made it easier for Charles Darwin to approach the
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topic and see it in a different perspective from Erasmus (Karp, 1968,
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p.17).
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In his early days at Cambridge University, Darwin was heavily
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interested in the works of William Paley (1743-1805) a famous theologist
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in his time. Paley's works which include Evidences of Christianity and
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Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy were required reading at the
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university. However, Darwin was most impressed by Natural Theology at the
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time. In this paper Paley examined the mechanism of the earth, its
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creatures, the complexity of their adaptations, their effective use of
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natural resources and their successful defence against nature. Paley also
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argued the inevitability of a Creator: "Design must have a designer. That
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designer must have been a person. That person is God" (Brent, 1981,
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p.274). As a student Darwin admired Paley and agreed with his philosophy.
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Paley had said that every species in existence was separately created by
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God. According to Paley nothing evolved. However, while Darwin was
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conducting research in evolution, he reread Paley's paper and discovering
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the flaw in it's logic proved it to be an important element in Darwin's
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reassurrance of the evolutionary process (Brent, 1981, p.306). Darwin
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disagreed with Paley on how species came to exist. Darwin argued that God
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had created species and through natural selection these species evolved
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over periods of time into the species that exist today. In the end Darwin
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used the power of the paper against itself in order to prove his theory of
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evolution. "Adaptation turned out not to be the result of some limitlessly
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benevolent design, but the very mechanism through which natural selection
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was expressed." (Brent, 1981, p.304). Darwin's rejection of Paley's
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ideology gave him a sense of pride and acted as a catalyst in his work on
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evolution. (Eiseley, 1961, p.178)
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Although Thomas Malthus was not a scientific writer like Erasmus
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Darwin and Charles Lyell, he had quite a strong influence on the
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intellectuals of his era due to the popularity and acceptance of his
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theories on population growth. One of these intellectuals was Charles
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Darwin.
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Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was an English clergyman and political
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economist in the times of Darwin and his primary contribution to the
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economic world was the his theory of population which was published in
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Essay on the Principles of Population in 1798.
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According to Malthus, population tends to increase faster than the
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supply of goods available for its needs. Whenever there is
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relative gain in production over population growth, it stimulates
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a higher rate of population increase; on the other hand, if
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population grows too much faster than production, the growth is
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checked by famine, disease, and war. (Funk & Wagnall's New
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Encylopedia, 1979, p.438)
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Malthus' theory was seen as being a dismal expression of the human struggle
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for survival. This philosopy of survival of the fittest was used by many
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to prevent society from improving living conditions for the poor.
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For Charles Darwin, this theory provided an answer to the problem of
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evolutionary change through the process of natural selection. Darwin was
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impressed by Malthus' work and realized that the population theory could be
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applied to all aspects of organic life and provided a solid base in which
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natural selection could be studied. Darwin believed that the theories of
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biological variation combined with the struggle for existence explained the
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biological divergence found in organic life. Darwin had such strong
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beliefs in Malthus' theory that he used the population theory to help
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explain his own theory about natural selection in his book The Origin of
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Species (Darwin, 1859, p.13):
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In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence among all organic
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beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from the
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high geometrical ratio of their increase, will be considered.
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This is a doctrine of Malthus applied to the whole animal and
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vegetable kingdoms.
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Since Malthus' theory was very popular and well accepted amongst the
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scholars of that era, Darwin used it so that his theory of natural
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selection would also be understood and accepted.
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Darwin had developed his theories before reading the works of
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Malthus, however his ideas were reinforced and this gave him the confidence
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to continue. Knowing that Malthus was popular and well received at the
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time, Darwin considered him a powerful ally who could assist him in
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presenting his theory of natural selection to the scientific world
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(Francoeur, 1965, p.53) .
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The geometric growth of life as expressed by Malthus greatly
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impressed him and may have turned his thoughts more intensively
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upon the struggle for existence. There is evidence in Darwin's
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essay of 1842 of his impressed reaction to the mathematical
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approach of Malthus. He comments almost as a memorandum to
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himself: "Study Malthus and calculate rates of increase [for
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various species]." (Eiseley, 1961, p.53)
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From the admiration and references Darwin gives to Malthus, it can be
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concluded that the ideas expressed by Malthus made him a key figure
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involved in Darwin's conclusions about evolution and natural selection.
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Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) was a British geologist born in
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Scotland. Although he studied law at the University of Oxford and was
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admitted to the bar, he followed a route that was completely different. He
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become a world renowned scientist famous for his studies and works in the
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field of geology.
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Both Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin were devoted believers of
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Uniformitarianism which established that "no forces had been active in the
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past history of the earth that are not also working today" (Nelson &
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Jurmain., 1991, p.36). The work that brought Charles Lyell acclaim was
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Principles of Geology . This was published when Lyell was virtually
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unknown as a geologist by his contemporaries (Chancellor, 1973, p.81).
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Lyell showed, through the process of uniformitarianism, that the
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earth's crust was formed via a series of slow and gradual changes.
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Mountains, rivers, valleys, lakes, deserts, and coastlines were
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not the sudden result of cataclysms, but rather the result of
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purely natural forces, such as erosion by land, water, frost, ice,
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and rain. (Nelson & Jurmain., 1991, p.37)
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This theory was highly debated amongst the geologists of the time but
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Lyell's training in law allowed him to "marshal the facts of an argument,
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to weigh evidence and to present it well" (Eiseley, 1961, p.98). Because
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of the simplicity of his writing, his book was read by the curious public
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as well as professional geologists. Due to the large amount of exposure of
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his book, his theories were gradually accepted by the scientific community
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and this cleared the way for Darwin (Brent, 1981, p.353).
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Being inclined towards geology, more than any other science, Darwin
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read the first volume of Principles of Geology, during his voyage on the
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H.M.S. Beagle. This was very important because Darwin observed evidence
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such as the mountains, rocks and coastlines of South America, which
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supported Lyell's hypothesis during this voyage. Darwin soon became a
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follower of Lyell. They met in England and kept contact with each other
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through letters and due to this close relationship and Lyell's work,
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Charles Lyell can be considered the most influential individual who
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affected Darwin and his theories of natural selection (Eiseley, 1961,
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p.179).
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It was through Lyell's work in Principles of Geology that Darwin
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learned about the development of the earth's crust, the environmental
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conditions, combined with the struggle of existence, that could have caused
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physical divergence present among similar species (Nelson & Jurmain., 1991,
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p.38). He also learned that the age of the earth was far greater than what
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Arch Bishop Ussher estimated as 4004 B.C (Nelson & Jurmain., 1991, p.37).
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One of the reasons why Lyell's work was debated was because it challenged
|
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|
the authority of the church and the religion. The age of the earth
|
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|
estimated by Lyell was on the order of hundreds or thousands of million
|
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|
years (Nelson and Jurmain, 1991, p.37) and this provided Darwin with the
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|
necessary time frame in which the gradual process of evolution was
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|
|
possible. The skeletal remains of giant sloths and the various species of
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|
finches Darwin discovered in the Galapagos Islands supported his theory.
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|
In effect, Lyell had provided all the facts and evidence for evolution
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|
however it was the insight of Darwin that brought about its proof (Brent,
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|
|
1981, p.380). Many scholars criticize Lyell for not being able to see the
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|
|
the connections between the geological discoveries and its application to
|
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|
|
the organic world. It was not until thirty years after Lyell wrote
|
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|
|
Principles of Geology that he accepted Darwin's theory of evolution
|
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|
|
(Eiseley, 1961, p.134).
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
It is clear that the works and ideas of Erasmus Darwin, William
|
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|
|
Paley, Thomas Malthus, and Charles Lyell had a positive influence on
|
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|
|
Darwin's own theories. It was the works of Erasmus Darwin that initially
|
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|
|
introduced Charles Darwin to the concept of evolution of species. The
|
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|
|
flawed logic in Paley's Natural Theology convinced Darwin that his ideas
|
|||
|
|
on the evolutionary process were correct. Malthus' philosophy of the
|
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|
|
survival of the fittest demonstrated the mechanism of evolution which
|
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|
|
Darwin used to explain natural selection. Charles Lyell provided the
|
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|
|
initial evidence and geological background which allowed Darwin to prove
|
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|
|
that the species evolved over long periods of time. In 1859 Charles
|
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|
|
Darwin published his findings and his theories in The Origin of Species.
|
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|
|
In his book, Darwin had thoroughly examined all the evidence and
|
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|
|
information he had gathered throughout his career which proved his theory
|
|||
|
|
of natural selection and his theory of the evolutionary process to be
|
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|
|
valid.
|
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|
|
|
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|
|
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
|
Bibliography
|
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|
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
1. Brent, Peter. 1981, Charles Darwin "A Man of Enlarged Curiosity"
|
|||
|
|
Toronto: William Heinemann Limited.
|
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|
|
|
|||
|
|
2. Chancellor, John. 1973, Charles Darwin London: Weidenfeld
|
|||
|
|
and Nicolson.
|
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|
|
|
|||
|
|
3. Darwin, Charles. 1859, The The The Origin of Species and the
|
|||
|
|
Descent of Man New York: Modern Library.
|
|||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
4. Eiseley, Loren. 1961, Darwin's Century: Evolution and the Men
|
|||
|
|
Who Discovered It New York: Anchor Books.
|
|||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
5. Francoeur, Robert T. 1965, Perspectives in Evolution
|
|||
|
|
Baltimore: Helicon.
|
|||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
6. Nelson, Harry & Jurmain,Richard. 1991, Introduction to Physical
|
|||
|
|
Anthropology St. Paul: West Publishing Company.
|
|||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
7. 1979, Funk & Wagnall's New Encyclopedia New York: Funk &
|
|||
|
|
Wagnalls Inc. (p.438), Vol 15.
|