textfiles/drugs/MARYJANE/m_health.txt

Marijuana and Health - an update of research results by Peter Gormand
Transcribed 5/9/90 by The Dak as originally printed in High Times, 11/87
Holiday Inn, Cambodia BBS - 209/456-8584 - 300/1200/2400 - 8/N/1 - 24 Hours
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     Although cannabis has been subjected to endless study and clinical
analysis, very little can be stated categorically as to its effect on
health. The scientific literature is confusing and contradictory, and
the marijuana issue polarizes emotions, making moralists of scientists.
Since every researcher is aware that his or her work is going to be used
somehow by someone in the case for legalizing or not legalizing public
consumption, personal and political bias seems to filter through the work.
 
     Marijuana and its compounds are not simple drugs.  What shows up
theoretically doesn't always appear in the lab; what appears in the lab
doesn't always appear in clinical practice.  Being a psychotropic, its
effects can vary widely from user to user.  Perhaps it confounds science
because it is a psychotropic.  Spiritual aids are rarely classifiable.
 
     In a time when designer cocktails can blow you into deep space with a
single dose, and crack makes instant addicts of nearly everyone who smokes
it, the issues of marijuana and its significance to health seem trivial.
But here at High Times, where pot is still king, we thought you should be
appraised of developments in the field.
 
     First things first:  Nobody's found web-footed babies, tiny testes,
atrophied brains, shrunken limbs or 44Ds in the average pot-smoking male's
contribution to conception.
 
     But that doesn't mean perpetual intoxication has the green light.
So sit down, read this and get some of the facts.  Note:  Research studies
involving humans referred to in this report - with the exception of a
section on pregnancy and birth - deal with adults.  As with all drugs,
and specifically intoxicants, researchers across the board recommend
against the use of pot by pre-pubescent and pubescent children.
 
Accumulation
============
 
     Of the 420 known components of Cannabis, the major, if not the only,
active component is Tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly called THC.  This is
a group of cannabinoids, sixty-one of which have been identified, many
of which produce some biological activity.  Delta 9 THC, the principal
active component in natural cannabis, produces almost all of the
characteristic effects of grass.  It is by far the most often studied
of the active isomers found in pot.
 
     The natural cannabinoids are relatively insoluble in water but
dissolve in fats and fat solvents and are called lipid-soluble. When
smoked, the THC is rapidly absorbed by the blood in the lung; high
concentrations of THC there begin to fall rapidly within 30 minutes
of smoking.  From that point on elimination slows considerably.
Roughly 25 percent of the initial THC and its metabolites remain in
the body after a week, and traces from a single dose can be found for
up to thirty days.  In the body, the THC binds to fatty acids where
it remains, unchanged, until it passes back into the blood stream
for elimination.
 
     Generally, lipid-soluble compounds are completely neutralized when
bound of fatty acids, but some controversy exists over whether this rule
holds true for the psychoactive ingredients of marijuana.  There is no
medical question about its distribution area - the fat cells of the
entire body from the toes to the brain - or that it remains unchanged
while bound there.  The questions are what effect the THC has on the
user while it waits for elimination, and whether the repeated
administration of even small doses may lead to an accumulation of
drug which is potentially higher than levels reached at any time after
a single dose.
 
     On one side of the argument, many researchers feel that general
toxicity studies have shown marijuana to be one of the safest drugs
ever studied for cumulative effects.  Another group feels that since
so much is not understood about how the THC acts on the brain, it is
possible that  minute doses of active THC released back into the system
may have a  continued toxic effect. Reese T. Jones of the University of
California at San Francisco said in recent correspondence that "When you
say active, right now, that's an unanswerable question...it's in the
brain, there's  no question of that, but the activity issue, that
depends on whom you talk to."
 
     The problem encountered with the issue of accumulation is typical of
issues involving marijuana.  There is continued debate over long-term
effects to both the chronic and casual user.  Obviously, in areas of
concern, researchers find the chronic user at more risk.  Few studies
have shown serious concern regarding long-term effects for the light
smokers, even among antagonists to the drug.
 
Acute Effects of Cannabis
=========================
 
     Little controversy exists in discussion of the short-term or acute
effects of smoking marijuana or hashish.  These occur while high levels of
THC are still in the metabolism.  These short-term effects can include an
increased pulse rate, giddiness, euphoria, hallucinations, reddening of the
eyes, dryness of the mouth, sudden hunger, heightened sensory perception,
sedation and conceptual changes.  A number of these - in combination - are
what is called "getting high."
 
     Along with these generally pleasant changes, the user may also
experience nausea, anxiety, paranoia, changes in blood pressure and body
temperature, disorientation, confused states, short-term memory loss,
temporary alteration of motor skills, changes in depth perception, poor
attention span and depression.  Some researchers have found that smoking
grass inhibits verbal and analytical skills in users while facilitating
nonverbal tasks.
 
     Additionally, marijuana, when coupled with other substances, can have
an addictive effect.  Alcohol and marijuana in combination can render the
user dysfunctional; marijuana used in combination with barbituates can
prolong the effect of the barbituate, and, in extreme cases (at least
theoretically), cause non-lethal doses of barbituate to become lethal
doses.
 
     In general, researchers agree that these effects, both pleasant and
unpleasant, are temporary.  Even acute anxiety or paranoid reactions can be
managed with verbal reassurance.  A study of 700,000 hospital admissions
in the United States in 1971 revealed that only 10 of those were for acute
cannabis reaction.
 
     Certain tasks requiring fine motor skills - driving a vehicle
or operating certain types of machinery and equipment - should not be
undertaken while under the influence of marijuana.  How long the
driver will be impaired remains under debate, but even the most liberal
thinkers acknowledge that driving should not be undertaken for three to
four hours after smoking.  The other end of the spectrum puts it at more
like sixteen hours - depending on the individual, the quantity and
quality of cannabis smoked and other factors.
 
     In certain circumstances - people taking medication which cannabis
might interfere with - individual may have a short-term reaction
deleterious to their health, and judgement should be exercised in the
use of cannabis.
 
     The effects mentioned above are considered to be of short duration
and depend on the potency of the cannabis, the setting, and the user's
orientation and state of mind at time of use.  Generally, some of the
negative - and, sorry to say, the positive as well - effects are expected
to be more pronounced in the newer user rather than in the more
experienced individual.
 
Long-Term Effects of Cannabis Use
=================================
 
     Pulmonary Effects:  The lungs are the natural target for the
harmful effects of smoked material, and among chronic smokers, chronic
bronchitis and mild airway constriction occur regularly.  There are
several known carcinogens in marijuana smoke and certainly more tar -
though no nicotine - and incidental particulates than in tobacco smoke.
But as yet there has not been a single instance of human lung cancer
attributable solely to marijuana use.
 
     The bronchial problems mentioned are somewhat more related to the
act of smoking than they are to the active ingredients in grass, and the
use of a water pipe can eliminate most of them.
 
     Theoretical problems with fungi found in marijuana - Aspergillus,
among others - are repeatedly mentioned in the literature.  However,
there has only been one official case of actual Aspergillus poisoning,
and that was in a man whose immune function was depressed as a result
of intensive chemotherapy treatments.  Fungi can be killed by cooking
the marijuana before use (100 degrees celsius for 30 minutes), though
in most healthy people this has not shown itself to be a problem.
Marijuana smoke has been shown to inhibit pulmonary antibacterial
defense systems, but the toxin involved is reportedly related to the
smoke itself and not to any psychoactive component in the drug.
 
     I recently spoke with Dr. Tashkin of UCLA, one of the leading
pulmonary specialists in the country, and asked him what the real
risks - long-term - to the smoker were.  "We've found changes in the
airways of marijuana smokers which are also found in the airways of
cigarette smokers who go on to develop cancer...it doesn't mean they
will develop cancer.  That hasn't been shown to have happened yet,
its just a marker of increased risk we've found in smokers using two
or more joints a day for more than five years.  The smoking of
marijuana can lead to pulmonary complications, and that really is
the bottom line.  Of course, to find out the real risk we're going
to have to rely on doctors asking their patients as to whether or
not they smoke.  We'll have to record that information, and that
information will have to be made available to pathologists, and they
will have to study the results."
 
Heart and Cardiovascular Effects:
=================================
 
     Smoking marijuana clearly changes the heart function.  The most common
and important of which is through tachycardia - a speeding up of the heart
rate that is sometimes accompanied by temporary changes in blood pressure -
and, occasionally, by ventricular fibulation - a condition where ventricle
contractions become uncoordinated.
 
     These effects have been shown to be temporary and reversible and not
problematic in healthy individuals.  In certain circumstances, however,
they could lead to serious complications - specifically in people with
heart problems or angina pectoris.  Those taking medication for the heart
are recommended to avoid smoking cannabis, since the THC may interfere
with those medications.
 
     The side effects of the speeding up of the heart rate (which also
occur in tobacco smoking, though not to as great a degree) can include
temporary change in body temperature, dizziness on standing and
diminished capacity for exercise.
 
     There is as yet no evidence of heart disease caused by marijuana or
any evidence of permanent effects to the hearts of healthy individuals,
though Reese T. Jones cautions that, "The lessons learned from chronic
tobacco use are worth considering [since] THC seems to have a far more
profound effect on the cardiovascular system than does nicotine."

Hormonal Effects:
=================
 
     Effects from both acute and chronic exposure to cannabis have been
shown in laboratory animals.  In male animals, the primary effects have
been a lower sperm production and changes in the serum testosterone
levels in the blood.  In female animals, changes include disrupted
menstrual cycles and a decrease in the production of prolactin, a
hormone which aids in the production of breast milk.
 
     In humans, there appears to be a modest reversible suppressive
effect on sperm production, which some studies debate, nothing that
tolerance quickly develops and sperm production rises again (even
during smoking) with no evidence that this has a deleterious effect
on male fertility.  Female hormonal study, at best, indicates a
slight disruption of menstrual cycles. Some researchers are quick to
point out that this disruption would have an obvious effect on those
trying to conceive on particular days, while others don't feel this
is a particularly negative effect.
 
     Some scientists feel that for men with marginal procreative or sexual
functions, even a slight lowering of their testosterone levels might cause
problems - though studies have failed to show this clinically.
 
     Scientists across the board are concerned with the possible problems
connected with pre-pubescent, chronic smokers and what effect even micro
and reversible hormonal changes would have on their development.  As yet
there is little evidence to suggest any great problems in this area, but
there is general agreement that this situation requires further study.
 
Cell and Chromosome Effects:
============================
 
     The numbers and kinds of chromosomes - Structures in a cell nucleus
which contain and transmit genetic information carried by DNA - are
characteristic for a given species.  Structural variation and changes
in the numbers of chromosomes may be evidence of genetic damage due to
drugs or other cmemical agents.  While there have been studies which
indicate that tar found in marijuana smoke can inhibit cell division
in certain types of cells, there have been fairly conclusive studies
made which indicate that marijuana does not break chromosomes.
 
     Studied that do indicate chromosomes have either been conducted on lab
animals - using doses of THC which were larger than humans could conceivably
take - or on multiple drug abusers, and those results "may be due to other
factors associated with a life of heavy drug use."
 
     The Relman Report - a government-sponsored study of marijuana and
health conducted in 1980 to 1981 to review all the then-existing marijuana
research - concludes that "the weight of evidence from human studies
indicates that neither marijuana nor THC causes chromosome damage."
 
The Immune System
=================
 
     The immune system functions in protecting the body against viruses,
bacteria, poisons and other infections.  It also plays a major role in
preventing the growth and dissemination of cancerous cells.  The primary
components in the system are two active white blood cells (T-cell and
B-cell) and macrophages.  B-cells identify specific body enemies and
produce antibodies to chemically disarm them.  T-cells consume viruses,
poisons and cancerous cells.  The primary job of macrophages is to stop
anything breathed in that could cause disease by absorbing it.  Both the
T-cell and macrophages grow as they consume, and they divide when they
have reached their size limit, creating more of themselves.
 
     Any inhibition of these functions, either in identification,
consumption or creation of antibodies to fight off the invading agents
is called an immuno-suppressive effect.  The body simply isn't handling
the problem.
 
     Some early studies in this area indicated that the T-cell's ability to
divide was inhibited by THC, though these studies were conducted only in the
laboratory.  Later studies have shown a weak immuno-suppressive effect in
macrophages, though these effects varied from subject to subject and were
regarded as transitory.  That is, shortly after smoking, while there was a
high concentration of THC in the body the body, there was a measurable
change; the response returned to normal as THC levels dropped.
 
     More recent studies, conducted by Munson and Fehr, conclude that
marijuana reduces resistance to infection but acknowledged that this change
would very from person to person and would most often by minor:  "It is
likely that we would not be aware of profound changes in the resistance of
humans if they occurred frequently.  But even minor effects would be
significant among those with immune disorders or with immunity otherwise
suppressed."
 
     On this last count, there is some concern from several quarters.
Even minor changes in immune response have to be looked at critically
in the light of the current AIDS epidemic, not as a cause by any stretch
of the imagination, but simply because it is an area which has not yet
been researched.
 
     This is not a cause of concern for the user.  It is only mentioned
because a number of scientists feel that ANY drug which relates, even
mildly, to the immuno-suppressive response cries out for research in
view of this new problem.
 
Pregnancy and Offspring
=======================
 
     Early reports which tied cannabis use to birth defects in humans on
the grand scale - webbed feet, retardation, and so on - have been
discounted by even the most anti-cannabis scientists.  Those studies
that reported these findings generally dealt with lower-economic groups
who practiced poor nutrition, drank heavily and were often multiple drug
abusers.  Even then, such major birth defects showed up with such rarity
that few people took them seriously.
 
   The reality is that while there are some effects to the offspring of
both humans and animals from cannabis use - generally from cannabis use
- generally from PURE THC - the changes are not very dramatic. Saraseth,
Carol Grace Smith, Susan Dalterio and Peter Fried, among others, have
found unhealthy changes in offspring of lab animals exposed to THC,
but most of these involved short-term nervous disorders, aberrant
visual attention spans, lighter birth weights and shorter gestation
periods. Radical doses of THC have had greater effects, but only in
lab animals and these did not correspond with human test results. Of
the above mentioned researchers, all but Dalterio agreed that offspring
whose mothers were exposed to cannabis or THC caught up with non-
exposed offspring within thirty days after birth.  Dalterio's work
deals with second generation mice, and her early results - roundly
disputed - suggest that fertility and hormonal production can be
affected in those second generational lab mice.
 
   Dr. Peter Fried, a leading researcher in the field who works with human
offspring, says, "There are no major effects to offspring when marijuana is
used in conjunction with good nutrition during pregnancy. Marijuana has
been used by middle-class women very comfortably during pregnancy since the
1960's. If there were any major effects they would have been noticed by now.
But that doesn't mean that there aren't subtle effects that might be
important." Those effects include "a significant increase in symptoms
associated with nervous symptom abnormalities which might indicate a mild
form of withdrawal...the optimum condition is for a pregnant woman not to
use any exogenous agents at all."
 
   Because THC is known to cross the placenta and to be found in breast
milk, and because the effects - even minor effects - are not fully
understood, this sentiment is generally echoed in the scientific community;
use of cannabis by pregnant women is not recommended.
 
The Brain
=========
 
   Despite two outlandish studies published in the 1970's which concluded
that marijuana caused brain atrophy, researchers universally agree that
there is no evidence that cannabis causes structural changes in the brain.
On the other hand, several teams of researchers have found changes in the
brain's electrical activity in human beings during the most active periods
of THC action. These changes diminish as the effects of the "high" wear off.
 
   More to the point are the chemical changes marijuana causes, since these
changes are what produce the "high," and the issue of accumulation. Most
researchers agree that while THC in minute doses remains in the brain for
some time after smoking, it is neutralized. New studies have found traces of
subcortical activity, presumably related to marijuana use and isolated to
that use, long after the "high" was worn off.
 
   Reese T. Jones had written in 1980, after much study, that "the weight
of evidence [indicates] that lasting neuro-physiological impairments are
possibly, but not inevitably, associated with some undetermined level of
heavy, prolonged marijuana use." Dr. Jones was one of the members of the
Relman Committee, and when I spoke with him recently about his 1980 findings
he said, "The conclusion of the National Academy of Science group - the
Relman Report - was that not all the answers were known but that one should
not be complacent and assume you're gonna get away scot-free. They were a
very good group of researchers, most of whom had no axe to grind about
marijuana. It's a very complicated drug, or series of drugs and there's so
much we don't know."
 
   Several other scientists I spoke with felt the same way. The brain is
very complicated, and the effect of cannabis on it is not fully understood.
Subtle changes invisible to testing methods may occur. Gilekson, making a
humorous report to a Senate subcommittee in 1980, concluded, "Marijuana may
not lead to death, but it might reduce the chronic smoker to mediocrity."
 
   Still others are not convinced that there is any evidence to support the
idea of accumulated toxicity or any other effects which are not entirely
reversible once smoking stops. But even they would like to see more research
money spent to study long-term effects to chronic, heavy smokers, and almost
no one is willing to commit themslves to saying there are absolutely NO
lasting effects, because so much remains to be understood about how the
brain really works.
 
   No scientists of repute suggested any real hazards in this regard for
the casual user.
 
Patterns and Behavioral Syndromes
=================================
 
   Although there is no evidence to suggest that a specific cannabis
psychosis exists, there has been enough clinical evidence of negative
behavioral patterns among chronic cannabis users for researchers to
recognize the interaction of the drug with previously existing problems.
In other words, psychological problems and psychiatric illnesses, while
not necessarily caused by chronic smoking, can certainly be worsened by it,
according to Rick Seymour, of the Haight-Ashbury Drug Abuse Clinic. These
"long-term problems or situation - where marijuana is being used to self-
medicate underlying psychological problems - call for appropriate
counseling by health professionals."

   Frequently discussed behavioral patterns among chronic smokers include:
 
- Antimotivational Syndrome: Characterized by apathy, loss of ambition,
loss of effectiveness, diminished ability to carry out long-term plans,
difficulty in concentrating and a decline in school and work performance.
This syndrome may be seen in non-smokers of marijuana, and even chronic
use is not always associated with loss of motivation, but people
experiencing these symptoms will, again according to Seymour, "Probably
worsen the situation by taking any sedating drug." Biologically, this
syndrome does not exist, but, as Hollister, a reputable researcher notes:
"One cannot help being impressed by the fact that many promising
youngsters change their goals in life drastically after entering the
illicit drug culture, usually by way of cannabis. With cannabis, as with
most other pleasures, moderation is the key word." The problem, for the
user, is to determine the difference between use and abuse.
 
- Toxic Delerium: Also known as acute brain syndrome, it is characterized
by a clouding of consciousness manifested by impairment of ability to
sustain attention to a goal or stimuli, changes in sleep patterns and
sustained disorientation. These symptoms are found only occasionally, and
then usually in long-term heavy users. Reese T. Jones has said, "Almost
anyone given the right dose in the right setting can be made to exhibit
a set of schizophrenic-like symptoms." Symptoms disappear with abstinence,
provided there is no additional psychological or physiological problem.
 
- Effects on Pre-existing Mental Illness: Clinical, not biological, evidence
suggests that in some cases - particularly patients with mood disorders and
schizophrenia - may be negatively affected by smoking grass.
 
 -Flashback Syndrome: While there is no biological evidence yet of a
flashback syndrome, many researchers feel that there is a king of deja vu -
often relating to acute anxiety - that many marijuana users encounter. Mike
Wizner of the Beverly Hills Detox Center, says he regularly treats people
for these negative feelings, which in some cases can be quite severe
whether chemically induced or not.
 
- Affects on Aggression: With the exception of the occasional rare individual
with some special disposition to violence, every experiment conducted with
cannabis has shown a decrease in aggression in the user.
 
Addiction
=========
 
   Most reasearchers agree that addiction, literal and physiological to
cannabis can occur after unspecified, long-term, heavy exposure to the drug.  
But withdrawal symptoms are very mild - slight depression, anxiety, possible
nausea - and of very short duration - several days or less. Fear of
withdrawal is not seen as a reason for continuing use. On the other hand,
"You have the same sort of psychological syndromes you do with any other
addiction," according to Dr. Norman Zinberg of Harvard Medical School's
Department of Psychiatry.
 
   Quantities of cannabis needed to attain addiction are nonspecific
(varying from person to person) but because they are known to be high, the
casual user does not run the risk of physical addiction.
 
Stepping Stone Syndrome
=======================
 
   Marijuana use does not physically lead to the use of, or experimentation
with, any other substances. Moreover, government studies indicate that
changes in an individual's behavior start before drug use. On the other
hand, clinical studies indicate that experimentation with one drug seems to
open a gate for experimentation with others. According to the National
Institute for Drug Abuse, those people who are going to have drug problems
generally begin by drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes, becoming addicted
to one or the other of these substances and then experiment with speed or
cocaine.
 
Cannabis and the Drug Addict
============================
 
   Rick Seymour has been working for years with people who have drug
related problems and has written extensively for a number of journals and
magazines, including High Times. When asked whether marijuana is harmful to
addicts trying to stay clean, he says "People who are getting off alcohol or
other drugs are in a position of having to deal very carefully with what they
are doing with their lives, from their diet to their behavior and so on. What
happens when they smoke is that grass creates a sense of euphoria that reminds
them of how nice it was to be loaded and there is goes. It's as simple as that.
There could even be a physiological factor that we don't
know about...[smoking] does seem to contribute to relapses among addicted
people."
 
Possible Medical Uses of Marijuana
==================================
 
   Various societies have used cannabis to treat a variety of illnesses
over the centuries, and Western medicine has recently begun to investigate
cannabis as well. According to the Relman Report, there are two reasons for
medical interest: The first is that cannabis exerts its effects "through
mechanisms that differ from those of other available drugs," and secondly
"since cannabis often works as an additive with other drugs, it is possible
that cannabis could be combined with other drugs to achieve a therapeutic
goal, but with each drug being used at a lower dose than would be required if
either were used alone. As a result, fewer side effects would be expected to
occur."
 
   Some of the experimentation has been promising, but some has been a
dismal failure. (Note Rick Seymour's comment about drug addiction in the
section on syndromes.) Some of the areas of the therapeutic potential of
cannabis include:
 
Glaucoma: Smoking marijuana reduces intraocular pressure in many patients,
but the effect is temporary (only as long as three or four hours), and many
patients don't like the side effect of intoxication. Some research is
continuing with the thought of isolating Delta 8-THC and making a topical
ointment that would have the therapeutic effect without the intoxication.
 
   Chemotherapy: Vomiting and nausea which accompanies chemotherrapy
treatment in cancer patients is so awful that some patients discontinue
treatment. Cannabis has been found to be an anti-emetic (anti-vomiting)
agent, and Delta 9-THC has been made available through the Food and Drug
Administration for this purpose in most states. Again, the intoxicating
effects are sometimes disorienting, and the treatment is seen as worse than
the disease. Some research is going on in an attempt to isolate certain
cannabinoids which would produce the anti-emetic action without side effects.
 
   In some cancer patients cannabis has been shown to be an appetite
stmulant, but here too, side effects have kept many patients from continuing
its use.
 
Anticonvulsant: Human and animal studies have shown that Cannabis can be
useful in blocking certain types of seizures - notably certain types of
epileptic seizures - and research is being done in this area.
 
Muscle Relaxant: Petro and Ellenberger have demonstrated that cannabis is
effective in relieving muscle spasm or spasticity, though there seems to be
no evidence of continuing research in this promising field.
 
Asthma Relief: While marijuana works as a bronchodilator and was thought at
one time to be of possible use in this area, it is no longer considered
viable because of the tolerance that develops to the smoke. Some work is
being done on isolating compounds which might be effective and not require
smoking.
 
Analgesic Action: While some studies have shown cannabis to be effective in
blocking certain types of pain, none show it more effective than what is
already on the market. No further research is currently being done in this
area.
 
Alcoholism: While at one time it was thought that cannabis might be
effective in treating alcoholism, it has now been shown that cannabis and
alcohol have an addictive effect on each other and produce undesirable
effects in this area.
 
Opiate Withdrawal: Here too, cannabis was at one time thought to be an
effective tool. Now, however, it has been shown to not aid the withdrawing
addict and to possibly reduce mental toughness, actually leading to
continuing addiction and relapse.
 
Cannabis Research
=================
 
   1. There is a problem of relating animal research to human experience.
In many areas the crossover is not accepted as accurate.
 
   2. Problems are encountered in regulating the dose. In research it is
easier to use isolated Delta 9-THC, though it is rarely used by itself in the
individual, and the isolated component doesn't necessarily act the same way
when it is found as part of the whole plant.
 
   3. Since researchers are not permitted to take non-smokers and make
them smokers - grass being illegal - they must study subjects who already
smoke. Since smokers are often multidrug users, assessing what part of a
health issue is directly associated with grass is often a difficult and,
certainly a manipulable factor.
 
   4. In studied of cross-cultural smokers, ganja smokers in Jamaica for
example, critics of these studies point out that the accurate histories of
the subjects contain variables that researchers cannot control. Proponents
of these cross-cultural studies point out that these populations have a
generational history of smoking. Critics point out that in cultures where
cannabis is acceptable, it is acceptable only among laborers, not in
intelligentsia, and so results are not applicable to our society.
 
   5. Not every researcher is scrupulous, and the lure of a research buck
or continuing research bucks for information the funding organizations want
to hear cannot be overlooked.
 
Summary
=======
 
   Enough is known about the effects of marijuana to keep most researchers
from saying that the heavy, chronic smoker will get a completely free ride.
There have been demonstrable negative effects to the lungs and unanswered
questions regarding several other bodily functions. It's questionable
whether these represent a serious danger to the user: The answer you get
depends on the researcher you speak with. At this time, the adverse effects
appear fully reversible though abstinence, though a good deal more research
is hoped for in several areas to clarify the issue.
 
   Information in this report was compiled primarily thorough the use of
several research review/overview reports. Specific bibliographical requests
will be furnished on request. Address queries to Peter Gorman, C/O High
Times, 211 E. 43rd St., New York, NY 10017.
 
Marijuana Research/Overview Reports
===================================
 
Dewey, Wm. L., "Cannabinoid Pharmacology," Pharmacological Reviews, Vol. 38,
#2
 
Hollister, Leo, "Health Aspects of Cannabis," Pharmacological Reviews, Vol.
38, #1
 
Jones, Helen C. and Paul Lovinger, The Marijuana Question, Dodd, Mead, 1986
 
Latimer, Dean, "The Complete Cannabis," High Times, Feb. 1985
 
National Institute of Drug Abuse, various reports furnished by the U.S.
government.
 
Smith, David, M.D. and Rick Seymour, M.A., "Abuse Folio: Marijuana," a look
at the nature, use and hazards of grass; High Times, October, 1982
 
United States Congressional Subcommittee Hearings, "Health Consequences of
Marijuana," 1980
 
United Sates Department of Health and Human Services, HHS News, May 5, 1987
 
Unites States Secretary of Health and Human Services/National Institute of
Medicine, Marijuana and Health, "The Relman Report," a study of all known
marijuana research conducted between 1965 and 1980; National Academy Press,
1982.
 
Wert, Renee, Ph.D. and M. Raulin, Ph.D., "The Chronic Cerebral Effects of
Cannabis Use: Neurological Findings," International Journal of Addictions,
Vol. 21, #6, pp. 605-628
 
World Health Organization, reports acquired from the United Nations.
 
Zinberg, Norman, Drugs, Set and Setting, Yale Press, 1984